'W 1^^*; mif^^^ y '■ ..^ -J- l;1i* * ^- *::i ^'X ' -A- 6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Pag^e Report of Executive Committee — Continued. Secondary grants — Continued. Chemistry — Continued. Noyes, A. A 109 Osborn, Thomas B iii Richards, Theodore W 112 Washington, Henry S 113 Engineering : Durand,W. F 113 Goss, W. F. M 114 Experimental Phonetics : Scripture, E- W 114 Geology : Chamberlin, T. C 117 Willis, Bailey 118 Geophysics : Adams, Frank D 119 Gilbert, G. K 120 Historical research : Abel, Annie Heloise 120 Howe, William Wirt 121 Mathematics : Lehmer, Derrick N 121 Wilczynski, E. J . 122 Paleontology : Hay, Oliver P 122 Wieland, G. R 123 Physics : Barnett, 8. J 124 Campbell, William 124 Carhart, H. S 124 Child, C. D 126 Crew, Henry 126 Hale, George E 127 Ivewis, E. Percival 128 Michelson, A. A. . 128 Wood. R. W 128 Physiology : Atwater, W. O 130 Chittenden, Russell H 131 Gamgee, Arthur ... 132 Noguchi, Hideyo 133 Reichert, Edward T., and Amos P. Brown 134 Zoology : Carlson, A. J 134 Castle, W. E., and E. L. Mark 136 Crampton, Henry E 136 Duerden, J. E 137 Eigenmann, Carl H 138 Howard, L. O. 138 McClung, C. E 139 Patten, William. 140 Pearl, Raymond 140 Tower, W. L 141 Wilson, H. V 142 Yatsu, N 144 Marine Biological Laboratory. 144 Naples Zoological Station 145 Research assistants ...... 146 Publications .' 147 Bibliography of publications relating to work accomplished 148 Accompanying papers 155-291 LIST OF ACCOMPANYING PAPERS. Page A Study of the Conditions for Solar Research at Mount Wilson, Califor- nia. By George E- Hale .: I55-I74 The Southern Observatory Project. By Ivcwis Boss I75-I77 Methods for promoting Research in the Exact Sciences : Letters of Simon Newcomb, Lord Rayleigh, H. H. Turner, Karl Pearson, G. H Darwin, Arthur Schuster, Edward C. Pickering 179-193 Fundamental Problems of Geology. By T. C. Chamberlin 195-258 Plans for obtaining Subterranean Temperatures. By G. K. Gilbert. . . 259-267 Value and feasibility of a determination of Subterranean Tempera- ture Gradient by means of a Deep Boring 261-267 Proposed Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean. By L. A. Bauer and G. W. Littlehales 269-273 Geological Research in Eastern Asia. By Bailey Willis 275-291 ILLUSTRATIONS. PI.ATES. Page Plate i. Cold Spring Harbor Station, first-floor plan 24 2. Cold Spring Harbor Station, cellar plan 26 3. Cold Spring Harbor Station, second-floor plan 26 4. The Marine Biological Laboratory at Tortugas, Florida 50 5. The Physalia . 54 6. Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, rear views 98 7. Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, front view 100 TEXT FIGURES. Fig. I. Plan showing main plot of ground, buildings, etc.. Cold Spring Harbor Station ... 25 2. Cold Spring Harbor Station, west elevation 26 3. Plan of laboratory buildings at Tortugas, Florida 51 4. Map of north end of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, showing site of Carnegie Institution Laboratory 53 5. Floor plan of Desert Botanical Laboratory 99 6. Route in eastern China, June, 1903-1904 277 7 ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. The Carnegie Institution was originally organized under the law governing the organization of corporations in the District of Colum- bia. Owing to certain limitations in the law, the Trustees deemed it desirable to obtain articles of incorporation from the Congress. Accordingly, articles of incorporation were prepared, submitted to the Congress, amended by the Congress, and enacted into statute by the Congress and the signature of the President. Organization under the new articles of incorporation was effected on May i8, 1904. Resolutions were passed electing the same Execu- tive Committee and officers as those of the Carnegie Institution organized in 1902 and continuing all instructions and authorizations given to the Executive Committee by the old organization. PuBi,ic No. 260. — An Act To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington. ■'&'• Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Represeyitatives of the United States oj America in Congress assembled, That the persons following, being persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Eyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L,. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Eindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their associates and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind ; and in particular — (a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any depart- ment of science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned socie- ties, and individuals. 9 lO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. (b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research. (c) To publish and distribute documents. (d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library. (e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation. (f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trus- tees hereinafter appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto. Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following individuals : Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H, Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Wal- cott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trus- tees. The board of trustees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resignation, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws shall prescribe ; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold and administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or propertj^ as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes of the trust ; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. II seal, to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary in carry- ing on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may deem proper ; and with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of the corporation ; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best promote the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary cor- porations for investment, according to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament to be hereafter made or executed. Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any addi- tional donations, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous. Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gilman, John S. BilHngs, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at his place of residence ; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the said corporation ; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, 12 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of I^aw for the District of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of any kind or nature ; and the several ofiicers of such corporation, or any other person having charge of any of the securi- ties, funds, real or personal, books or property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this iVct or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same ; and the trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corpo- ration known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the payment of an^^sums due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired ; but such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and, discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding be- fore any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act. Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately. Approved, April 28, 1904. BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION. Adopted December 13, 1904. Article I. THE TRUSTEES. 1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with power to increase its membership to not more than twenty- seven members. The Trustees shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term. 2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee. 3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such. 4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot. No person shall be elected, however, who shall not have been nominated at a preceding annual or special meeting, except by the unanimous consent of the members present at a meeting. Article II. MEETINGS. 1 . The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the second Tuesday of December in each year, 2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Committee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting. 3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the Board. Article III. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. 1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice- Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees , from the members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired term ; provided, however, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees. 2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers of a presiding ofiicer. 13 14 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. 3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disabiHty of the Chair- man, shall perform his duties. 4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties. He shall execute all deeds, contracts or other instruments on behalf of the corporation, when duly authorized. He shall have custody of the seal of the corpo- ration and shall afl&x the same whenever authorized to do so by the Board of Trustees or by the Executive Committee or the Finance Committee. Article IV. EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION. The President. 1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall devote his entire time to the affairs of the Institution. He shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspond- ence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommen- dations in each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have power to remove and appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex o^fficio a member of the Executive Committee. 2. He shall be the legal custodian of all property of the Institu- tion whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall be responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the Institution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all re- ceipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees at least one month before its annual meeting in December a written report of the operations and business of the Institution for the pre- ceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appro- priations for the succeeding fiscal year, which shall be forthwith transmitted to each member of the Board. 3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees. BY-LAWS. 15 Article V. COMMITTEES. 1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz, an Executive Committee and a Finance Committee. 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institu- tion ex officio and, in addition, five trustees to be elected by the Board b}' ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term: Provided, however, that of the Executive Committee first elected after the adoption of these by-laws two shall serve for one year, two shall serve for two years, and one shall serve for three years ; and such Committee shall de- termine their respective terms by lot. 3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in ses- sion and has not given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration, research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution ; shall ap- point advisory committees for specific duties ; shall determine all payments and salaries ; and keep a written record of all transactions and expenditures and submit the same to the Board of Trustees at each meeting, and it shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication. 4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all appropriations made by the Board. 5. The Finance Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years. 6. The Finance Committee shall have general charge of the invest- ments and funds of the corporation, and shall care for and dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee. It shall consider and recommend to the Board of Trustees such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board. 7. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. 8. The terms of all oflQcersand of all members of committees shall continue until their successors are elected or appointed. 1 6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. ARTICI.E VI. FINANCIAL, ADMINISTRATION. 1 . No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees. 2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of November in each year. 3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual meeting in each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited by a skilled accountant, to be appointed b}' the Chairman of the Board, and shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. 4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year ; but nothing contained herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting. 5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property shall be deposited in such safe deposit or other corporation and under such safeguards as the Trustees and Executive Committee shall designate; and the moneys of the Institution shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time be designated by the Executive Committee. Article VII. AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS. I . These by-laws maj' be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting. MINUTES OF SECOND MEETING OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES. [Abstract. ] The meeting was held in Washington, at the New Willard Hotel, on Tuesday, December 13, 1904, at 10 o'clock a. m. At 12.55 a recess was taken until 2 p. m. The Chairman, Mr. Billings, occupied the chair. The Secretary called the roll, and the following Trustees responded: Messrs. Billings, Cadwalader, Dodge, Frew, Oilman, Hay, Higginson, Hitchcock, Hutchinson, Eangley, Lindsay, Low, MacVeagh, Mills, Mitchell, Morrow, Root, Walcott, White, and Wright. Absent : Messrs. Agassiz, How^e, Gage, and Spooner. Letters were received from Messrs. Agassiz, Gage, and Howe regretting their inability to be present. The minutes of the last meeting of the Board were presented, and on motion full reading was dispensed with and they were approved as per abstract furnished each member. The President presented his resignation, as follows : Carnegie Institution of Washington, December /j, igo^. To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution. Gentlemen : At your meeting on December 8, 1903, I presented a letter saying : ' ' When I had the honor of being chosen the first President of the Carnegie Institution, I said to the Trustees that from the nature of the case my tenure of office must be short, for, having passed the age of seventy years, I was looking forward to a release from serious official responsibilities. The term of five years was fixed in the by- laws, and three of them will have passed at the next annual meet- ing of the Board. It is my intention at that time to resign the office of President, and this early notice is given in order that the Trustees may be prepared then to take such action as may seem to them wise. ' ' In accordance with this intimation, I now resign the office of President of the Carnegie Institution, and, as the title of the chief executive may perhaps be changed, I will add that I am not a candidate for reappointment under any other designation. In taking this step, I beg leave to assure the Board of my con- tinued interest in the development of this Institution according to the purposes of the founder ; and I express to the members of the Board, collectively and individually, my highest respect. 17 l8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. It has been an honor and a privilege to be so closely associated as I have been with the organization and progress of an institution which bids fair to be a most potent factor in the advancement of knowledge and in the encouragement of scientific men. I am, gentlemen, very respectfully yours, Daniel C. Oilman. The following motion was then offered and passed : Resolved, That the resignation of President Gilman be accepted ; and in thus severing the harmonious relations which have existed between the President and the Board and the President and the Executive Committee the Trustees desire to express their full appre- ciation of the prestige that the retiring officer has brought to the Carnegie Institution of Washington by his presidency. The Secretary referred to various details of business and submitted the cash statement and financial statement as shown on pages 19 and 20. The Secretary also reported that since October 31, 1904, he had collected on sales of publications $589.01, and expended $31,895.21, leaving a cash balance on hand of $438,654.97 to date. The consideration of the by-laws was next taken up. The by- laws as amended and adopted are printed on pages 13-16. After discussion and various suggestions as to the qualifications needed by a president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, a ballot resulted in the election of Dr. Robert S. Woodward, Dean of the Scientific Faculty of Columbia University, New York. The election of members of the Executive Committee to fill the vacancies caused by the expiration of the terms of Messrs. Billings and Walcott resulted in their re-election to the class of 1907. On submission of the report of the Executive Committee the Chair- man and Secretary made a general statement of the plan of work and financial outlook. After discussion and some minor changes, resolu- tions were passed making the following general appropriations : Reserve fund ^50,000 Publication fund, to be continuously available 40,000 Administration 50,000 Grants for departments and large projects 310,000 Grants for miscellaneous researches 168,000 At 4.50 p. m. the Board adjourned. MINUTES OF SECOND MEETING. 19 >s 0 , 0\ tti N a '*1 0) S V u 1 12 U3 v> tti 0 in ^ I a o a < 10 ON ««= i-i 00 w o LO 00 00 ON On 10 NO ON ON NO 10 O ON CO ON o o o no" 10 o 01 00" NO rO 0 00 rf ON 00 NO t^ On |>I On 1 1 s 0) ;-( O o o Ph o • O cc m 5 T3 J3 "^ CO 'S a < a a o a o Pi ON NO vO m «0 0 ON M to HH •^ ON NO HH CO CO 10 ON NO PI fO CO 10 tv. CO O CO VO On CO P« •^ CO O ON VO NO y C pq o o o_^ o" o lO a a u O OH U LO lO 10 -"tt^ 00 O NO O P< q_ On pTco" ON CO a U ' O CO 1-1 ^_, o O y y C o -mC/5.2 en . rt O U U o ?§ t3« t^ 10 "^ O P) P» CO "O! PL, PL, 2;:?; a ^ 3 . 8 o rt o o P be Oh P^(Z j3 y O (U en '3 y a CO CO a o cd o a cS bfl 3 O H o o PQ I-I y Mo u > 20 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Financial Statement. Dr. Cr. Endowment Jio,ooo,ooo Reserve Fund 200,000 Investments : U. S. Steel Corporation Bonds, 5 ^ |io,ooo,ooo :|ioo,ooo Atch., Topeka and Santa Fe Ry. Co. Gen'l Mtg. 4% 100-year Gold Bonds," Oct. i, 1995 100,11250 |ioo,ooo N. Pac. Ry. Co. Prior Lien Ry. and Land Grant Gold Bonds, Jan. i, 1997, 4%.. 101,800 150,000 Northern Pacific-Great Northern 4% Joint Bonds, Chicago, Burlington and Q. collateral, July i, 1921 46,500 $50,000 Lake Shore and Mich. Southern 4% D. Bonds 48,222 22 Interest : Reserve fund investment 10,000 Other investments 380 69 Sales of publications 102 03 Grants : Large 69,321 24 Special 13,250 80 Minor 77,17413 Publication 67,470 65 Administration 25,630 08 Furniture 1,065 51 Seal 1,500 Cash 469,961 17 Available fund 300, 700 76 110,766,595 89 $10,766,595 89 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON THE WORK OF THE YEAR. The Executive Committee began consideration of the various directions and authorizations given by the Board of Trustees imme- diately after the adjournment of the Board, December 8, 1903 ; also of matters recommended by the committee and approved by the Board. The work of the committee and its recommendations for the fiscal year 1904-1905 are shown in this report. During the fiscal year the committee held eight meetings. Its organization continued the same as for the fiscal year 1 902-1903. Mr. Oilman acted as chairman and Mr. Walcott as secretary. APPROPRIATIONS. At the annual meeting of the Board, December 8, 1903, the fol- lowing appropriations were made for large projects : Tropical Pacific exploration *|40,ooo Department of Experimental Biology 70,000 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism . 20,000 Trans-Caspian Expedition, archeological exploration 18,000 Geophysical research 25,000 Investigation of mineral fusion and solution under pressure |i2,5oo Study of elasticity and plasticity of solid bodies upon finite deformation 7, 500 Preparation of a bibliography of geophysics 5, 000 Department of Economics and Sociology 30,000 Bureau of Historical Research 8,500 1211,500 * It being impracticable to secure the services of the person whom the Execu- tive Committee expected to take charge of this work, the project was abandoned and the appropriation not drawn upon. 3 21 22 CARNKGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. REPORTS ON I.ARGE PROJECTS. DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY. The subject of research in zoology was before the Executive Committee at its eariiest meetings, and was under consideration for nearly two years before the specific recommendations for any large projects directly in charge of the Carnegie Institution were pre- sented to the Board of Trustees. In Year Book No. i the special advisory committee on zoology made several recommendations of a broad bearing, one of them being that of establishing a permanent biological laboratory as a central station for marine biology in general. In the same Year Book there were printed two schemes for the establishment of biological experiment stations for the study of evolution — one by Dr. C. B. Davenport, who favored Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, and a second by Prof. Roswell P. Johnson, who favored a protected marine shore near fresh-water ponds. The "Executive Committee consulted with many experts and carefully investigated the feasibility of making the Marine Biological Labo- ratory, at Woods Hole, Mass., a central station. This was found to be impracticable, and the Executive Committee stated in its report to the Board of Trustees for 1903 that it had concluded that the best mode of dealing with this important field of research was to organize a Biological Experimental Department, to which could be referred all questions and problems of evolution, specific differentia- tion, heredity, etc. This was to include the establishment of an investigating station at Cold Spring Harbor, where ground and some buildings were offered, and also the establishment of a collec- tion and experimental marine biological station at the Dry Tortugas. The above conclusions were accompanied by a recommendation that the department be established and allotments made to begin the work. The Board of Trustees approved the recommendations. The Department of Experimental Biology was organized by the appointment of Dr. Charles B. Davenport as Director of the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, and Dr. Alfred G. Mayer as Director of the Marine Biological Lab- oratory at the Dry Tortugas, Florida. A grant of $34,250 was made to the station at Cold Spring Har- bor, and of $20,000 to the Marine Biological Laboratory at the Dry Tortugas. The reports of the directors follow. report of executive committee. 23 First Report op Station for Experimental Evolution UNDER Department of Experimental Biology. By C. B. Davenport. At the request of the Executive Committee of the Carnegie Institu- tion, I submitted a plan of organization of the department in Decem- ber, 1903, and, in detail, of the Station for Experimental Evolution. It was decided to locate the station at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. The superior advantages of other localities were fully con- sidered. California offers a more equable climate, where outdoor work could be pursued throughout the year ; the proximity of lofty mountains would be advantageous. Two important considerations favored the selection of Dong Island : First, its accessibility to the greater number of workers in this field, and, second, its proximity to extensive libraries, making the upbuilding of a large library at the station unnecessary. The points of fitness of Cold Spring Harbor for the proposed work, besides those of central location and proximity to great libraries, are as follows : The free offer of about ten acres* of land, with house and stable and horse shed ; the situation of this land on the sea, with wharf, and on a fresh-water creek with a permanent stream running across the land, and with elevations vary- ing from sea-level to 50 feet above sea-level ; the location is among interesting and intelligent neighbors, with the desire and the means of helping the work proposed ; the surrounding country is well watered, densely forested, and hilly, offering a great variety of habi- tats, whose fauna and flora have long been thoroughly studied. The offer of this advantageous property was made by the Wawepex Society, which holds it in trust from the late John D. Jones. The writer spent the winter months in New York in arranging for the transfer of the property, in visiting the architects, and in pur- chasing supplies for the new station. Early in February a caretaker, Mr. John N. Johnson, took up his residence at Cold Spring Harbor, and work with living animals there has been carried out continuously since. On May i Dr. ShuU, Miss Dutz, and Mr. T. E. Kelly began resident work, and on June i Mr. Frank E. Dutz arrived. On Saturday, June 11, the formal opening of the station was cele- brated by exercises. Through the courtesy of the Dong Island R. R. Co. a special car brought some fifty guests from New York, and an equal number attended from the neighborhood. After luncheon at the director's residence the following addresses (for full report see pp. 33-49) were given in the Biological Daboratory, whose grounds adjoin those of the station : 24 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. PROGRAM. 1. Introductory address by the director of the station. 2. Presentation address, by Mr. W. R. T. Jones, governor of the Wawepex Society. 3. Response by Dr. John S. Billings, chairman of the Board of Trustees, Car- negie Institution. 4. Address of welcome to the station on behalf of the Brooklyn Institute by Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, director of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. 5. Scientific address. The aims of experimental evolution, by Prof. Hugo de Vries, professor of botany at the University of Amsterdam and director of its botanic garden. DESCRIPTION OF GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS. The land, leased for fifty years to the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington for a nominal sum, is situated, as shown on the map on page 25, at the head of Cold Spring Harbor, about 34 miles from Long Island City by road and rail and 14 miles in a direct line from the boundary of Greater New York. The property is bounded on the northeast by the harbor, on the east by the Natchaquatuck creek, on the south by the public high- way, which separates it from the grounds of the New York State fi,sh hatchery, on the west by private grounds and a private road, and on the northwest by the lands of the Wawepex Societj^ leased to the Brookl^'n Institute. The whole lot of land is divided into a smaller and a larger part by a private road. On this piece of land is a large house on the site of the old homestead of John D. Jones and his brothers and sisters, some of whom are still living on Long Island. This house will be used as the director's residence. Something over an acre is reserved as the house plot. Most of the rest of the main plot of some five or six acres is surrounded by a wire fence (77 inches high and supported on iron posts) for the better protection of live-stock and the experimental garden. On the wharf there stands a shed, very useful for the tempo- rary shelter of lumber, coal, etc., brought to the station by boat. Just east is a large salt-water fish-pond, and beyond is a small boat and bath house, near which ways will lead to a larger boat-house for the protection of the station launch during the winter. Near this boat-house and inside the main inclosure is a driven well 204 feet deep, flowing 9 gallons per minute. This will supply the residence, stable, and laboratory, by means of an electric pump with a capacity of 15 gallons per minute. It is proposed to supply the tanks in the cellar and first floor of the laboratory from a spring in the ravine. The laboratory building, which is being erected under the super- intendence of Messrs. Kirby, Petit & Green, of New York city, by PLATE 1. o o en 55 kw I > 33 ID O 3) CO H > O z 3) CO H O o 33 > Z REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 25 Messrs. Rogers &Blydenburgh, general contractors.of Babylon, Long Island, is 60 feet by 35 feet, and consists of two stories, cellar, and attic. It is built of brick in Italian Renaissance style, with framed partitions and floors above the cellar. The roof is of tin. Iron lath is used and the floors are covered with asbestolith, so that the build- ing is semi- fireproof. The front elevation is shown on page 26 and three floor plans on plates i, 2, and 3. Biological laboratory BROOKLYN INSTITUTE COLD SPRING HARBOR Fig. I. — Plan showing main plot of ground, buildings, etc., Cold Spring Harbor Station. In the cellar, which has windows on the east half, are a work-room, a coal-room, and a room for the storage of food and agricultural implements. In the unilluminated half are a photographic room, a refrigerator room, and one for cave studies on both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. On the ground floor are two large rooms for breeding terrestrial animals, one for aquatic animals, one for prepar- ing food, and one small work-room. On the second floor there are five research rooms, a secretary's room, a small library with a capacity of 1,000 books, and a large glass-covered room for breeding plants and animals. In the attic is a single room 39 feet by 14 feet and 6 26 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. feet high under the eaves, rising to 8 feet. This room, lighted by ten small windows, has a capacit)' of about 7,000 books. Kvery one of the work-rooms of the building is supplied with salt water and both cold and hot fresh water ; each has electricity as the main source of light and power, and is piped for acetylene gas. There is an intercommunicating telephone system, and additional wire, sufficient to connect the different parts of the property, has been placed. A dumb-waiter places the main breeding-rooms in con- nection with the food-room in the cellar, and every room is provided with special means of ventilation independent of the windows. Water is supplied by an electric pump, which keeps a tank in the attic of the residence (the loftiest point on the grounds) full by an Fig. 2. — Cold Spring Harbor Station, west elevation. automatic float-switch. The building is heated by steam, the tem- perature being automatically regulated. Three undertakings contemplated from the beginning will have to be deferred until 1905. These are : first, a plant-propagating house about 18 feet by 50 feet ; second, a wire covering to the experimental garden to keep out seed-eating birds ; and, third, a series of outdoor fish-ponds, involving 1,000 feet of piping from springs. In addition to aids in correspondence and registering, such as a typewriter and letter and card files, the station possesses two compound microscopes and two dissecting microscopes, one Minot microtome, paraffin bath, the necessary glassware for cytological work, and a full laboratory equipment. We have also two adding machines for statistical work, a few meteorological instruments, an incubator, a PI ATE 2. O O cn z o I > o 09 H > H O z o m > 33 > Z in ^^^ l^Mfe^^ o o 0> 2] I > X CD O X CT H > H O z CO m O O z o o o X > z en O p <+ REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 27 food grinder, an outfit of carpenter's tools, and agricultural imple- ments. The station owns one horse, a farm wagon, a runabout, two sets of harness, and a 27-foot naphtha launch. We have recently purchased 17,000 brick, left over by the contractor on the building, and $100 worth of roofing material ; we have on hand over $1,000 worth of lumber and $50 worth of paint. The Libra}'}'. — On account of the proximity of the station to New York city, it is not necessar}^ that an attempt should be made to build up a general biological library. We have, however, collected a working library of compendia of the different sciences, books relat- ing to experimental evolution, and complete files of a few important periodicals, and are taking some periodicals currently. Including those brought to the station by the writer, the following com- plete files are available : Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Entomologoie, American Journal of Physiology, Bericht der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, Biological Bulletin, Botanisches Centralblatt, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History (exclusive of vol. i), Journal of Morphology, L'Annee Biologique, Zoological Record, Zoologische Garten, Zoologischer Anzeiger ; also complete series of zoological cards of the Concilium Bibliographicum to date. The following periodicals are taken currently : American Natural- ist, Biologisches Centralblatt, Breeder's Gazette,Bulletinde la Societe Zoologique de France, Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse, Experi- ment Station Record, Farm Journal, Gardener's Chronicle, Journal of Experimental Zoology, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Nature, Nautilus, Popular Science Monthly, Psyche, Revue Gene- rale de Botanique, Science, Zeitschrift fiir das landwirthschaftliche Versuchswesen in Osterreich. In addition to the books purchased by the station, the director has brought to the station 2,500 bound books and pamphlets, largely relating to general and experimental biology. ORGANIZATION. The station comprises four classes of workers : ( i ) The resident staff and helpers, (2) honorary associates, (3) associates, (4) corre- spondents. (i) The resident staff includes those engaged in the scientific work of the station and resident there. Besides the writer, whose work is largely on domestic animals, mollusca, and Crustacea, the staff includes Dr. George H. Shull, whose work is chiefly botanical and who also has charge of the herbarium ; Mr. Frank E. Lutz, whose work is chiefly on insects and who has charge of the record 28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. of the periodical animal and meteorological phenomena ; Miss Anne M. L,utz, whose work is partly on the cytological phenomena of heredity and partly keeping the administrative records of the corre- spondence of the station ; and Miss Mabel E. Smallwood, who gives some time to the care of the library. The helpers at the station include the following : Lewis Ander- son, mechanician ; John N. Johnson, animal caretaker and janitor ; Thomas K. Kelly, gardener and general helper. These men are serving the station loyally and doing much to advance the work. (2) Honorary Associate.- — In recognition of the preeminence of his researches in experimental evolution and in commemoration of his participation in the opening of the station, there has been chosen as honorary associate in perpetuity Dr. Hugo de Vries, professor of botany and director of the botanic gardens. University of Amsterdam. (3) Associates. — These are biologists who are either receiving some assistance through a grant directly from the Carnegie Institution in the Department of Experimental Biology for work similar to that done at the station, or receiving aid in their investigations directly from the station. They may be regarded as the non-resident staff of the station. Associates of the station confer with the director from time to time about their investigations in experimental evolu- tion, to the end that there may be mutual understanding of work and avoidance of unnecessary duplication of work. Results of asso- ciates are submitted to the director of the station before publication in a medium mutually agreed upon. Associates are appointed for the calendar year. The following are associates for 1904 : Dr. Nathaniel L. Britton, director. New York Botanic Garden. Cooperation in experiments in mutation breeding. Dr. William Ernest Castle, assistant professor of zoology. Harvard University. Studies in breeding mammals. Dr. Henry Edward Crampton, professor of zoology, Columbia University. Selection in Lepidoptera. Dr. Edward Laurens Mark, Hersey professor of anatomy, Harvard University. Cytological studies in Mendelian hybrids. Dr. Daniel Trembly MacDougal, assistant director, New York Botanical Garden. Mutation in Onagra (Oenothera) ; cooperation in studies on plant mutation. Dr. William J. Moenkhaus, assistant professor of physiology, Indiana Univer- sity. Fish hybridization. William Lawrence Tower, instructor in zoology, the University of Chicago. Evolution of the Colorado potato beetle. Dr. Edmund Beecher Wilson, professor of zoology, Columbia University. Cy- tolog}' of hybrids. (4) Correspondeyits. — These are biologists in the United States and abroad who are engaged in experimental breeding and who have in- dicated their willingness to enter into the relation for the exchange of publications and correspondence upon matters of mutual interest. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 29 The following have entered into this relation up to October i , 1904 : Mr. William Bateson, University of Cambridge, England. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C. Dr. C. E. Correns, professor of botany. University, Leipzig. Dr. L,ucien Cuenot, professor of zoology. University, Nancy, France. Dr. E. Fischer, Zurich, Switzerland. Mr. C. C. Hurst, Leicester, England. Dr. Arnold Lang, professor of zoology. University, Zurich, Switzerland. Dr. M. Standfuss, professor of entomology, Zurich, Switzerland. Dr. Erich Tschermak, Hochschule fiir Bodenkultur, Vienna. Dr. Charles Otis Whitman, professor of zoology. University of Chicago. SCIENTIFIC WORK. From the very nature of the investigations undertaken and the slow- ness with which most animals and plants breed, few scientific results can be expected from three or four months of work. Results are just beginning to come in, and will be published in the scientific series recording the work of the station. It is the policy of the station not to undertake particular lines of experimental work that are being done well elsewhere, and conse- quently certain fields cultivated at universities are not undertaken, although the material might be especially favorable for results. Dr. Davenport, in addition to a heavy burden of administration and his duties as director of the Biological lyaboratory of the Brooklyn Institute, has devoted himself largely to breeding domesticated animals to test the range of validity of the theory of unit character- istics. In these experiments the station is receiving the cooperation of neighbors. Cows, sheep, goats, cats, poultry, and canary birds are being bred and especially cross-bred. Experiments are also being made upon wild species of Crustacea and mollusca. Records are kept of the breeding periods of representatives of these groups. Particular attention is being paid to Japanese long-tailed fowl to test the cause for their peculiarity. Already certain results of hybridiza- tion have been obtained, of which a report will be made later. Dr. ShuU reports as follows : The ground to be devoted to garden experiments had not been tilled for about 15 years, and the first problem which presented itself in preparation for botanical investigations was the conversion of this heavily sodded meadow-land into a successful garden plot. About three acres of ground were broken, and con- tinuous cultivation has reduced the soil to a very satisfactory physical condition. With the exception of a few small areas, the soil, a light, sandy loam, has proved fairly fertile ; thorough manuring will be needed, however, to bring it to the high degree of fertility desirable in a garden. Owing to the uncertainty of results to be obtained under the conditions pre- sented this year, none of the special cultures to which the garden is to be largely 30 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. devoted was undertaken here, but, through the generosity of the New York Botanical Garden, a number of species of plants were grown there from seeds collected by Dr. Hugo de Vries in Holland and sent by him for the use of the station. Several of these species appear to offer promising material and will be cultivated at the Station for Experimental Evolution next year. Other species will be discarded for various reasons, chiefly because of doubtful antecedents, as in the case of Iberis, Tagetes, and other common garden species, partly because of technical difficulties in the way of satisfactory characters for the obseiA'ation or measure of variability. The plants which have been grown in the garden to offer a sufficient immediate incentive for thorough cultivation have been ordinary garden crops. A portion of the products has been sold, resulting in a small revenue to the station, and the remainder has been used as provender for the various forms of animal life which are being reared. Some variations have been observed in these species, and seeds have been saved to test the heritability of these variations. Several species have been used also as a basis for experiments in hybridization. It is the settled policy of the station, however, to devote its attention as far as possible to native plants, in order that results may not be vitiated by the effects of unknown garden treatment in the past history of the plants. One of the most important activities this season, therefore, has been the collection of the seeds of native plants for cultivation. In this work important assistance has been received from the New York Botanical Garden. Seeds of about one hun- dred species are now in hand. The aim has been to secure seeds representing as wide a range of natural orders as practicable, and an effort has been made to get, among others, a number of species whose normal habitats are diverse from those which will be presented at the station, with the hope of finding some which will tolerate the new conditions through the production of adaptive structural modifications. Accordingly, seeds have been collected on the oak and pine barrens of central Long Island and on the sand dunes of Fire Island beach and Bayville, Long Island ; a few days were spent in the White Moun- tains, New Hampshire, collecting seeds of alpine plants. Through the kindness of Mr. Arthur Stanley Pease, Andover, Massachusetts, seeds of about twenty species were obtained from Gaspe & Co., Quebec, most of these species having a northern range. Special attention has been given to securing seeds of species showing a notable degree of variability, and in these species the seeds of individual plants have been taken separately and the plants have been preserved as herl^arium speci- mens, in order to allow comparison between the offspring and the parent plant. As many as fifteen types of one species have been thus isolated. The herbarium of the station is planned to consist of four distinct sections. First, there will be a section devoted to the local flora of Cold Spring Harbor, including an area having a radius of ten or fifteen miles ; second, the pedigreed plants used in tracing the origin and heritability of variations will be in the course of years the main section of the herbarium ; a third section will contain seedlings and juvenile forms ; and in the fourth section will be preserved all those aberrant forms which would be classed as abnormalities or monstrosities. Several hundreds of specimens have been collected this season, belonging most largely to the section devoted to the local flora, but supplying smaller numbers to each of the other sections. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 31 In connection with the herbarium of pedigreed plants a card catalogue has been established, which gives the origin and history of each lot of seeds that has been cultivated or is to be cultivated in the garden. A system of numbering has been adopted that will not only identify each plant or each lot of seeds, but will also indicate the parentage. A second card catalogue gives phenological data regarding the local flora, and when fully developed will serve as an index to the condition in which any species may be found at any given date. Notes have been made on the variations of certain species in the local flora, and in several instances quantitative studies have been completed. Prepara- tion has been made for the continuation of this work during the winter by col- lecting and preserving material either in alcohol or as pressed specimens. The station has also collaborated with Dr. D. T. MacDougal and other mem- bers of the staff of the New York Botanical Garden in a study of Onagra laniarckiana and its mutants, and the results of this study will appear shortly as a publication from this station. Arrangements have been made to cultivate several of these species of Onagra at the Station for Experimental Evolution during the next few years in order to determine the exact relation of the nm- tants to their parent form and their agreement or disagreement with known laws of variation and heredity. Mr. Lutz reports as follows : The suumier was chiefly spent in breeding insects for the purpose of discov- ering suitable material for future work in the investigation of variation and in- heritance. Incidentally a general collection was made of insects abundant in this locality, especially of such as bid fair to be advantageous for use in evolu- tionary studies. ^Material was also gathered for determining, if possible, the existence and strength of assortative mating among the Arthropods, and part of this was worked up preparatory to publication. Experiments have been started with a view toward determining the cause of macropterism in short-winged species and the opposite condition in long-winged ones. Dimorphic species seem especially suited to the investigation of Men- delism, and it is hoped that this particular dimorphism may throw some light upon the much-discussed question of inheritance. Hybridization experiments in several genera of insects have been attempted, in conjunction with Miss Anne M. Lutz, in order to determine the behavior of the paternal and maternal chromosomes respectively. Miss Lutz reports as follows : As a preliminary step to the study of the germ plasms of hybrid plants and animals, it seemed advisable to spend a considerable portion of the present year in making a general survey of the field about us, with a view of discovering such forms native to this locality as might present desirable cytological qualities for future hybridization experiments. As material is gradually acquired, full data concerning it will be carefully recorded and the slides filed in cabinets under convenient heads for future reference. Some little has been accomplished in this line, other forms are the subject of present investigation, and considerable material has been acquired and preserved for winter study. 4 32 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. For several very obvious reasons, attention has been directed particularly to the study of insects. Material is abundant and in many instances readily obtainable ; the appearance of several successive generations in the course of a summer is a further desirable feature ; and, lastly, considerable literature on the spermatogenesis of insects is available for suggestive and comparative study. Although I have relied in the main upon the efficacy of the osmic mixtures, Flemming's and Hermann's fluids for the best preservation of animal tissues, and of weak chromo-acetic for plants, no particular fixing agent can be relied upon for universal satisfaction. However, it seemed undesirable to consume much time during the collecting season in sectioning material and testing the relative merits of various reagents ; consequently I have selected some three or four generally reliable fixatives, and wherever possible presen-ed such quantities of germ plasm in each of these that sufficient material for study may be ob- tained from any one that may later be found superior to the others. In order to insure the best results, I have hastened most of my objects through the grades of alcohol and into paraffin as rapidly as possible after fixation. It is naturally to be anticipated that much of the work of the cytologist will apparently come to naught, as it may be presupposed that the chromosomes of closely related forms in the vast majority of cases will be found similar in size, shape, and number ; but work will be continued independently and in connec- tion with the experiments being carried on by other members of the staff, and if from among many failures an occasional result may be obtained which will throw new light upon the question of inheritance, the reward will be ample. PUBLICATIONS. The results of the resident staff and associates of the station are to be published, it is expected, in the form of a series of studies under the general title " Scientific Results of the Station for Experi- mental Evolution." Already two papers, the first exclusively by an associate, Dr. W. E. Castle, and the second by another associate. Dr. MacDougal, in conjunction with Dr. George H. Shull and others, are ready for the printer. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The station has a number of gifts to acknowledge in addition to many offers of assistance, some of which have already been taken advantage of. We have already referred to the supreme gift of the valuable land from the Wawepex Societ)-. From Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, three of his multinipple sheep. From Dr. O. L. Jones, building sand and gravel. From David Jones and Charles Jones, scientific books from the library of the late Edmund Jones. From Mr. Timothy Tread well, East Williston, one Hampshire Down ram at one-fourth value. From P. Blackiston's Son & Co., publishers, two text-books on embryology. From American Museum of Natural History, set of bulletins. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 33 ADDRESSES AT OPENING OF THE STATION FOR EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION. JUNE II, 1904. Introductory Address by C. B. Davenport. IvADiES AND Genti^emen : On behalf of the resident staff of the station I bid you welcome to our opening exercises. We do not celebrate here the completion of a building, we are dedicating no pile of bricks and lumber — rather, this day marks the coming to- gether for the first time of the resident staff for their joint work, and we dedicate this bit of real earth, its sprouting plants and its breeding animals, here and now to the study of the laws of the evolution of organic beings. Representatives of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institu - tion, we feel the full weight of the responsibility we accept in receiv- ing the grant that you have made to this station. You have given us a fair start. It is for us to justify your confidence in us and the worthiness of the work to command continued and increasing sup- port. However, as many of our experiments will demand j^ears for their completion, quick returns must not be looked for. Without making big promises of things that we are going to do, we may state our confidence that important scientific results can be gained in the work that we have begun, and assure you that whatever devotion and scientific training can achieve we shall, up to the limit of our resources, do. We work, howev^er, not alone, but with the assistance of our neighbors and scientific colleagues. Gentlemen of the Wawepex Society, this celebration is yours. But for your generous proffer of the land intrusted to you by the late John D. Jones for the use of science, this station would never have been established here. Your appreciation of research has made possible the realization at Cold Spring Harbor of that dream of Bacon, who saw in the new Atlantis gardens devoted to the experi- mental modification and improvement of animals and plants. Your faith in our projected work increases the burden of our responsibility. Gentlemen of the board of managers of the Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, this new station comes as a neighbor of your laborator}^ glad to give and receive scientific companionship. We shall get stimulus from the enthu- siastic students of nature who work at the laboratory each summer, and trust to recruit from them some who, as investigators, shall cooperate in the work of the station. 34 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Neighbors, we have been already for some time acquainted, and if I have long desired to have the station stand in this community it was because I knew that you would appreciate our work and be glad to assist it. We have already received the largest confirmation of our belief. Generous proffers of use of land, of building mate- rials, of cooperation on a larger or smaller scale, have come to us on every hand. The gift that calls forth additional gifts has unlimited possibilities, and alreadj'the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution have cause for self-congratulation on having selected as the site for this station a community of such intelligence, resources, and generosity. Scientific colleagues, this station belongs to the men of science who can use it for the purpose to which it is dedicated. The staff are servants of biological science and seek its advancement — not their own. Rejoice with us for the new opportunity that has come to our science. We look to you for collaboration, for cooperation, and for criticism and advice. With such assistance, this station must succeed in achieving the ends for which it is founded. Address of Presentation by W. R. T. Jones, Governor of THE Wawepex Society. Representatives of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, ladies, and gentlemen : Cold Spring has experienced several distinct changes since Prime, in 1845, wrote his history of Long Island. He devoted to it just four lines, describing it as "a considerable village in the northwest corner of the town (Huntington), lying on a harbor known by the same name. ' ' The village had long possessed two factories and a flour-mill, which were of great benefit to the neighboring farmers in taking their wool and grinding their grain ; also two or three stores, all doing a small paying business. With the introduction of the whale-fishery business the village awoke to a real boom. Buildings were erected to accommodate this business, houses built for the em- ployees, and in my early days the village, especially on the west side, showed its activity by noises from the continued hammering of iron, the resounding echo from the coopering shops, the clanging of boat- builders, and the buzzing of saws. When this business became no longer profitable, the place soon appeared like a deserted village — houses became vacant, buildings unused, and everywhere neglect and decay. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEl':. 35 The whale-ships ordinarily came to anchor in the outer harbor. My father, John H. Jones, built a dock on the east side of the inner harbor to facilitate their outfitting, and I have seen a vessel fitting out at that dock for a three years' voyage to the Arctic ; but the great rise and fall of the tide prevented the experiment being a suc- cess, and the original anchorage was resumed. The great rise of the tide — some 7 feet — was in one respect an aid outside, for, lying at anchor several months, the anchors sank so deep in the mud that the windlasses of the vessels could not start them, and when the chains were hauled taut for the vessel to pull by the rise of the tide, it often took several tides before the windlasses could weigh anchor, necessitating three days in breaking anchorage. There were two post-offices by the name of Cold Spring in this State, and the delivery of letters became so confused between the one on the North River and the one on Long Island that the name of the Long Island village was changed to Cold Spring Harbor. It was then made a port of entry, an honor which I believe it still re- tains, but the income is very limited. Many of the deserted build- ings were torn down — one because it interfered with the view of the outer harbor from this house ; two or three have been modified so as to be of present use. The inner harbor, with its clear water, was in those days a constant source of amusement. A pretty sandy shore at the lower end of these grounds, with a clean sand-bar ex- tending out, was a delightful place for youngsters, especially from the district school near by, to bathe at medium tide, and I never failed in taking advantage of this sport. A legend was long current that General Washington, on his way from Oyster Bay through the island, halted at this school-house when being erected and gave per- sonal aid in raising the first rafter. At low tide the water largely covered the bottom, and at the deep hole a number of acres were always filled with 5 to 6 feet of water, even at the lowest tide, which permitted a pleasant pastime for young people to fish and se- cure results worth serving at the table, the incoming tide always bringing in a fresh supply of fish. Occasionally, but at long inter- vals, one or two porpoises might be seen sporting in the inside water, but as soon as the tide turned to ebb they made for the outer harbor and no effort to stop them ever succeeded, as they dived under or leaped over the string of boats stretched across the narrow entrance to stop their escape. The next change, particularly on the west side, assumed a scien- tific aspect. 36 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. My brother, John D. Jones, inherited the family homestead and adjoining grounds. He was born in the family mansion, which was destroyed by fire, and he erected this building on the site of the old house. The Brooklyn Institute desiring a place to establish a school of biology, he put up for that institute a building suitable for its purpose, and the school, under charge of able professors, has been a success, doing original work which has been a credit to Long Island, and acknowledged as such by similar foreign institutions. He also leased to the State of New York grounds for a fish hatchery, which is now turning out each year several hundred thousand trout and salmon to stock the inland waters of the State. Seeing the need of an organization to perpetuate the management and care of the grounds and property devoted by him to scientific research, he incorporated the Wawepex Society under the laws of the State of New York governing scientific societies, and the above society has been in charge for several years. The name is taken from an old Indian name of the harbor. Mr. Jones, one of the incorporators of the society, at its meeting January 25, 1892, to organize, was chosen as governor, and was continued in that office until his death, September 22, 1895. This year the Carnegie Institution, attracted by the advantages of the locality, has asked for a fifty-years' lease of part of the grounds, taking in this house, for carrying out experiments in evolution, prom- ising to put up a special building for that purpose, and the lease has been granted. It gives great pleasure to the Wawepex Society to pass over to the representatives of the Carnegie Institution the papers putting that institution in possession of as much of the property as it desires for erecting buildings to carry out its experiments. I trust in going back and investigating, as far as possible, the origin and order in creation it will find nothing to interfere with the doctrine of the church just around the corner, erected largely by aid of family relatives, in its efforts for improving morals and explaining to the best of its ability life hereafter. With these three institutions hailing from our village, it will assuredly soon become well known and appreciated both at home and abroad. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 37 Remarks by Dr. John S. Bileings, U. S. A., Chairman of THE Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institution OF Washington. It gives me great pleasure to accept, in behalf of the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the offer of the Wawepex Society to grant to us the use of these grounds for the establishment of a Station for Experimental Evolution, and I beg to offer our sin- cere thanks for, and the assurance of our high appreciation of, this important and valuable grant. In considering the numerous applications for grants of money for research which are made to the Carnegie Institution, we have been in the habit of asking several questions : First, Is the proposed re- search one that will probably give good results? Second : Is it a research which any individual or institution is carrying on, or is likely to undertake ? Third, Who is the man who proposes to under- take it, and what are his qualifications? Fourth, Is it an individual piece of work, or does it involve cooperation ? Among the first recommendations made to the Carnegie Institu- tion for research in biology were several advising the establishment of an institution for the study of heredity, development, and evolu- tion by experimental methods. It was evident that such study, if properly made, would give interesting results which might be of great practical importance, but that if the work were undertaken it must be with the distinct understanding that it should be continued for a long period. We took a year to make further inquiries, from which it appeared that no person or institution was likely to undertake such a work as this, although there were a number of persons in this country and in Europe who were engaged in research upon various points connected with the general subjects of evolution and heredity. We also found that there was a man who was willing and anxious to take charge of the work — a competent man who had demonstrated his ability, an exceptional man willing to give his life to the researches proposed. We found that these researches could not be carried out as they should be carried out by any individual ; that they require coopera- tion and coordination of results ; that it is desirable that many stu- dents should be engaged on different sections of the problem, and that these students, each working in his or her own way, should be aided as far as possible by this department. 38 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. In view of these facts we decided that a portion of the funds intrusted to us by Mr. Carnegie to encourage investigation, research, and discovery should be devoted to a Department of Experimental Biology, a main feature of which should be the establishment of a station for the study of experimental evolution, to be located here at Cold Spring Harbor, and it is this station that we are inaugurat- ing to-day. We know that experimental investigation, especially in this field, is a slow process, and uncertain in its results, and that we must be patient. This is a seed that we are planting ; for the buds and blossoms and fruits we must wait, believing that they will come in due season, although they will probably not be what we now expect. The scope of the work of this department of experimental biology is wide and far-reaching. Already the results of biological research have had a strong influence on philosophy and theology, and we can hardly even imagine what the outcome maj- be in sociology and political science. The problems of evolution and development through heredity involve the structure and functions of that part of the living organ- ism which seems to be necessary for what we call mental action, from the lowest, dimmest forms of consciousness, through memory and will to the highest flights of art, philosophy, poetry, and religion. Let us hope that the work of this station will be so well done that by the time it celebrates its fiftieth anniversary it will have demon- strated the wisdom of its establishment. Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, director of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and secretary of the board of managers of its biological laboratory, located on the ground adjacent to the new station, next spoke. He regretted the absence of Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, president of the board of managers of the laboratory, due to illness, and welcomed the new station as a neighbor of the biological laboratory. Mr. Davenport, in introducing Prof. H. de Vries, said : I have before me two or three books : One, by Professor Weismann, dealing with the " Germ Plasm," presents the great guiding theory of the development of the individual. But the foundations of this theory were laid some years before Weismann, in a little work en- titled " Intracellular Pangenesis," from which work, consequently, the modern science of cytological embryology dates. Every one knows of the great revolution wrought in physics and chemistry by the new science of physical chemistry. One of the REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 39 most far-reaching generalizations of this science is that of solutions. The first to investigate this subject was not a chemist, but a botanist, the author of "Intracellular Pangenesis," who is therefore one of the founders of phj^sical chemistry. During the last three years this great work that I hold in my hand has appeared, entitled " Die Mutationstheorie," the most impor- tant work on evolution since Darwin's " Origin of Species," a work destined to be the foundation stone of the rising science of ex- perimental evolution. It also is by the author of " Intracellular Pangenesis. ' ' To be the author of any one of these works establishing a science is to be famous. It is an exceptional opportunity that we have to meet the preeminent author of all three, Dr. Hugo de Vries, professor of botany at the University of Amsterdam and director of its botanical garden. The Aim of Experimental Evolution, by Dr. Hugo de Vries. Ladies and Gentlemen : A bright prospect opens before us. Hopeful preparations have been made to start on a new course. Strenuous endeavors are proposed to wrest from nature secrets which •not long ago seemed almost impregnable. The matter of the evolu- tion of organic life on this earth, hitherto a subject of great admira- tion, admitting only of appreciative and comparative studies, is to be investigated to its very core. We are no longer content to look at it in a broad way, to enjoy the mighty display of harmony between all living beings and to sit down and wonder. We want to have a share in the work of evolution, since we partake of the fruit. We want even to shape the work, in order to get still better fruits. Evolution must become an experimental science. First it must be controlled and studied, afterwards conducted along selected lines, and finally shaped to the use of man. To do this work 3-0U have called the man that was the first in this country to propose the hazardous combination, "Experimental Morphology," thus giving an impulse to a new direction of thought. No reward can be more satisfactory to a man of science than the opportunity to continue his researches on a large scale and with all the means required for success. This opportunity is solemnly offered to-day. Mine is the task of congratulating the director and the staff of the new laboratory on this occasion and wishing them the success they so well deserve. 40 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, With all my heart I accept this responsibility. American science is rapidly gaining a prominent place in the esteem of Europe. More and more our eyes are turned westward. Important discoveries on fecundation, on sexuality, on the microscopic representatives of the heredity qualities, on systematic relationships, and on numerous other subjects contributory to the great science of evolution have of late been made in America. The honor you are this day bestowing upon me I appreciate very largeh', because it implies the desire to fra- ternize. No words are needed to assert that this desire is perfectly reciprocal. In trj'ing to sketch for you my conception of the aim and work of this new laboratory, allow me to use a metaphor. Science is a source of light amid almost universal darkness. Brightly it shines on mankind, delivering us from ignorance and impotence, from doubt and fear. The light has to be kept bright ; but, moreover, the field of its influence must steadily be enlarged. Hundreds and thousands of industrious men are engaged in this work. Large numbers of scientific institutions provide the means and direct the efforts. On all sides the illuminated area is being extended, increasing the bless- ings of knowledge. Besides this assured and sj'stematic progress another method is from time to time adopted. Centers of illumination are thrown out far away into the surrounding darkness, constituting new starting points from which to win dominion. Often they become extin- guished, leaving no trace of their existence, but sometimes persist and glow. In these cases the small point of light vigorously in- creases, and all the territory intervening between the new and the greater field of light becomes in time illuminated. Science is a mighty means of broadening our conceptions and our ideas, as well as our power to utilize the laws and materials of nature. Such new centers of illumination are the great landmarks of its progress. They immortalize the names of their founders. Bacon and Newton, Lyell and Dar^vin stand preeminent among all. Edison and iSIarconi, Rontgen and Curie are adding their genius to the universal effort. With this lofty conception of a twofold method of scientific prog- ress the Carnegie Institution fully complies. At Washington it is working toward a general increase of knowledge. Besides this, it has thrown out a first center of illumination far away into the arid desert to emit the rays of science and inquiry over phenomena not yet understood and over fields apparently uninhabitable and useless to man. MacDougal, Coville, and Cannon are guiding the work, REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 41 aud under such promising auspices the Hght can not fail to increase and soon to shine brightly all about. A second lighthouse is being established to-da3\ It is to be a beacon in quite another territory, illuminating the far more arid problems of the origin of species. It is surrounded by a denser darkness, for there is less previous knowledge in this field. It re- quires the care of a keeper thoroughly prepared for the work and of large experience. With him it will open up wide fields of unex- pected facts, bringing to light new methods of improvement of our domestic animals and plants. The care of the lighthouse is given into the hands of Mr. Davenport and his staff, and many details of its internal affairs are looked after bj'^ the kind care of Mrs. Daven- port. Thus provided, it can not fail to fulfil its mission, aud to yield the results expected from it, and even more. What these results will mean is as yet impossible to predict. Dis- coveries come unexpectedly ; but as a rule they fall into the lap of those onl}^ who are prepared to make the most of them. Expecta- tions, on the other hand, may be elaborated, and I consider it my duty to explain to you the nature of the expectations that the foun- dation of this laboratory is awakening in me. Of course only gen- eral outlines can be given, and the picture is to be painted with a broad brush in order to give an adequate image of w^hat may some time be ; but in the meantime I am fully convinced that the future will largely exceed even our highest hopes. In conformity with the idea of the twofold methods of scientific progress, I imagine that this station, too, will work after these principles. The territory around the new center of light must be more and more completely illuminated. Besides that, beacons have to be carried forward into the darkness, aud search-lights have to guide the progress along new paths. What may be discovered by such search-lights can hardly be guessed at. It is quite a dream, a mixture of hopes and possibili- ties, of facts and hypotheses. What is real is the endeavor to get at the most intimate causes of evolution. I have indulged in this most delightful dream, and if you will allow me to give you a sketch of what I have seen, I may perhaps succeed in conveying to you an idea of what seems to me the farthest limits of inquiry for the present. My dream started from the old question, What is that in the egg which enables it to develop all the qualities of the bird ? Some- thing must be there, and we may even assume that all the separate qualities displayed by the bird have their representatives in the egg. 42 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Now, if it were only possible to get at these representative par- ticles within the egg, what changes might not be effected in the de- velopment of the bird ! To take a very simple example, the peacock has a white variety, lacking the bright colors of the feathers. If in the egg of an ordinary peacock we could seize upon the representa- tive particles of the color and impede their development, perhaps we would succeed in reproducing the white variety at once and quite artificially. Obviously this is the heart of the matter, for if once the principle should be discovered to dislocate such a representative, we might apply it to numerous other instances. A white peacock would be no novelty and no gain, but we would be able to make white varie- ties of other birds and other animals, and perhaps even of the bright- colored flowers, which until now have resisted all endeavors of the breeders in this line of work. The white-color varieties are, of course, only intended as an example. Other and more valuable qualities might likewise be expected to become changeable. There would be no limit of suc- cess if that principle were found, and why should it not be possible to discover it ? Methods of attacking this question are not at all failing. We might try to kill some of the representative particles in the egg, or to stun them, or to injure them in ever so slight a measure, so as only to retard their development. More than one starting point for such an attempt is at hand. Engelmann has taught us a method of lighting and heating small parts of a living cell. He uses the focal point of a glass lens, which he directs upon the cell while lying under the microscope. If now a very small part is overheated and thereby killed, the remainder of the cell is seen to be still living and apparently uninjured. By refining this method some of the most sensible representative particles might perhaps be killed without too much injury to the others. Johannsen has of late discovered that plants may be stimulated by a treatment with narcotizing substances, such as ether and chlo- roform. Dormant buds may be awakened and display their leaves and blossoms even in midwinter. The studies of Overton have thrown considerable light upon the agency of such narcotizing sub- stances upon the living protoplasm. Wilson has proved that visible changes may be effected in the eggs by means of ether. Though these observations seem to justify a hope of success, very much re- mains to be done. If we assume that some representative particles REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 43 are more sensible to ether than others, perhaps some could be made inactive, and the qualities they represent would fail in the develop- ment of the organism. Loeb, of the University of California, has shown that the stim- ulus which fecundation gives to growth, besides and above the mixture of the hereditary qualities of the parents, may be replaced by purely chemical agents. He pointed out that the unfertilized egg remains inactive through the action of some unknown cause, which may be removed by the use of distinct salts. Delage has markedly improved this method by making use of carbonic acid instead of salts, and it seems highly probable that by this or other gaseous agents the representative particles of the hereditary qualities might be attacked separately. Davenport has studied the effect of poisonous chemical substances upon the growth of organisms, and shown that by gradually sub- jecting them to various poisons they become immune to them. Applying this principle to the representative particles in the egg, we might expect to find some immune while others were not, and thus to remove distinct peculiarities from the ensuing process of evolution. Other agencies might be tried. The finest and most effective methods offered by allied sciences have to be made use of. If one way fails, another may succeed. The rays discovered by Rontgen and the radio-activity of the new element, radium, have already proved themselves capable of provoking important changes in living organisms. These changes are partly of a retarding nature, and some processes are more sensible to them than others. If the same holds good for our dormant representatives in the egg, we may hope some day to apply the physiological activity of the rays of Rontgen and Curie to experimental morphology. Be this as it ma3% it is only a dream. Perhaps I have recalled to your mind too many facts and discoveries in too short a time. My object was only to convey to you the idea that the future work of this laboratory must keep in close relation with all the great victories of the sister sciences. It has to keep up with the newest researches and to omit not even the slightest occasion of profiting by the work of others. All sciences converge toward one main point, and any noticeable advance in one direction must obviously favor the work on the other lines. Opportunities of rapid success are not rarely offered, but the success really comes only to him who is steadily on the lookout for a chance and who is thoroughly prepared to profit by it. • 44 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINCxTON. I^eaviug these chances, we may now turn to the dailj^ work. It is that work which cahnly and steadily increases our knowledge and which is the most assured way to success, even if the advance is less striking and seemingly slower than in the alluring experiments alluded to. The process of the evolution of animals and plants has to be at- tacked by direct experiment. This evolution, however, has a long history, covering many millions of years. Its historical part, of course, is not accessible to experimental work. From its innermost nature it must be studied according to historical and comparative methods. In laboratory work we may simply pass it by. After eliminating this great mass of detail concerning the pedigree of the animal and vegetable kingdom, two points remain, which pre- sent themselves for experimental study. These are the beginning and the end. Obviously the real end is not yet reached, evolution going even now steadily on. In the same waj^ we may assume that the beginning is not yet finished. The laws that ruled the material world some twenty or thirty millions of years ago must have been the same that are still ruling it in our daj'S. Circumstances may have changed, but it is not very probable that those which permitted life at the beginning and those which have made it possible during the long geological ages should have been widely different. Quite on the contrary, it seems only natural to assume that new life may nowadays originate as well as in former times. It is only a que.stion of where we are to look for it. On this very difficult point I like to be guided by the genial con- ceptions of Brooks. In his " Foundations of Zoology " he depicts the primeval seas and their living population. All life must have been limited at those early periods to the high sea ; all organisms were floating amid the waves, going only to a depth of some few meters. Here the main lines of the animal and vegetable pedigree must have been produced, starting the great divisions of both king- doms. The only exceptions are offered by the flowering plants and the vertebrate animals, which seem to have originated on the shores or perhaps on the land itself. As long as all life was in this floating condition, evolution proceeded rapidly and broadened out. Then came a period when, as Brooks says, the organic world made the discovery of the possibility of living on the bottom of the sea, feed- ing on the sinking remains of the floating world. This great change was the starting point for numerous adaptations and for the evolu- tion of a richness of forms and structures, but without the previous progress in the production of many really new divisions. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 45 It is a very attractive image, and I much regret not to be allowed to follow it any longer. For us it points to the probability that the very first organisms must have been inhabitants of the high sea, floating in the waves ; or, as it is now called, they must have been members of the plankton. Thence the conclusion that it is within the plankton that new creations are to be sought for. If really they are still occurring in our days, it must be the high sea that conceals them. Obviously these first organisms must have had the lowest possible degree of organization. They were not cells, they can not have had any differentiation. They must have consisted of a uni- form jelly, with only the capacity of increasing their mass. If such a jelly could be detected, what possibilities would not be opened to experiments on evolution ! The chance may seem very small, but then, before Rontgen and Curie there was no chance at all of dis- covering X-rays and radio-activity. The plankton has to become one of the main points of interest for all who care for experimental evolution. The other end of the evolutionar}^ development is the evolution that is still now going on. Here we are on a more assured ground, though even here the methods and the starting points have yet to be discovered. These, however, may be attained by strenuous work, attacking palpable phenomena from obvious sides, and subjecting them to the general methods of ordinary experimental inquiries. Two main lines have to be followed. One is the direct .study of variability ; the other relates to the dependency of this variability on the outer conditions of life. The first line uses the statistical methods, while the second relies chiefly on the experiment. Both have to be cultivated as well on botanical as on zoological ground. Four large divisions are here indicated for the daily work of the laboratory ; but it is a manifest advantage that the leader of the work should be conversant with all of them. Mathematical and statistical studies have their eminent representatives in Europe, both among zoologists and among botanists, and likewise experimental work has not been neglected by them ; but none of them com- bines the severe requirements of mathematics and statistics with the looser methods of morphological inquiry, and with the strict rules of experiment, and this as well in the study of animals as in that of plants. Such wide erudition and large experience, however, are preeminently necessary in the man who has to take the direction of this new laboratory, and it is from the innermost core of my 46 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. heart that I congratulate you on the good fortune that made a'ou find this combination in the appointed director. Fluctuating variability, however, has been the chief line of study for Mr. Davenport, and he would be a bold man who would try to show the way where such a guide is at hand. For my part I prefer confining myself to such questions as are more obviously touched by my own line of work. The experience of agriculturists and horticulturists has long since established the fact that new forms of animals and plants from time to time arise. How they originate is another question, which it is not the task of practice, but of science, to answer. The fact, however, is undeni- able, and all observations point to sudden changes or so-called sports as the first beginning. Especially in the dominion of horticulture Korshinsky has shown, by an ample critical survey of the historical evidence, that sudden sports are the prevailing rule and probably even the exclusive manner of originating of new varieties. Such considerations have led to the conviction that what occurs in horticulture must also occur in the experimental garden. If the conditions are the same, why should not the phenomena be the same, too ? If mutations are rare in horticulture, the experimenter has only to arrange his work so as to be able to detect rare occurrences in his cultures, too. In doing this I have succeeded in observing mutations quite analogous to the horticultural instances, and col- lecting all the evidence concerning their ancestry and their descend- ants as well as concerning the mode of their appearance. Moreover, I have had the good fortune of discovering a wild plant which is even yet in a condition of mutability. Yearly it is observed to produce new species. It is the large-flowered evening primrose, which bears the name of Lamarck, the founder of the theor)^ of evolution. It clearly shows how new species arise from an old stock, not by continuous and slow changes, but all of a sud- den. The stock itself is not altered by the process nor even notice- ably diminished. The new species which it produces arise on all sides. Some of them are in a higher, others in a lesser degree fit for their life conditions ; some persist during years, while others disappear nearly as soon as they arise. This instance of experimental mutations is found largely to agree with the experience of breeders, especially in horticulture, and like- wise with the conclusions that have been drawn from comparative' studies. The assumption that those species and genera which now consist of large groups of closely allied forms have originated in REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 47 the same way seems quite undeniable ; and as soon as the validity of this generalization is granted for these cases it will have to be considered of general, if not universal, bearing. It is chiefly owing to the work of Mr. MacDougal that the evening primroses have come to be recognized in America as the true material for the study of evolution by sudden leaps. His cultures of the original stock and some of its mutants have proven the significance of the differences between the new and the old species, and have awakened an increasing interest in this line of research. To the demands made by such work the laboratory has to respond, and it is now my duty to point out the chief lines which should be followed in order to reach this aim. Two main lines have to be distinguished : the study of the phe- nomenon itself and that of its causes. Mutations, of course, can not be assumed to be a special feature of the evening primroses. They must occur elsewhere, too, and these have to be sought for. The Oenothera was one of a lot of nearly a hundred species tested as to their constancy ; it proved to be the only changeable form among them. By testing a hundred other species or other strains of the same forms it seems probable that one or two new instances of mutability may be detected . The best way is to try the wild species of the nearest environments or of other regions with a corresponding climate, since large numbers of seedlings have to be examined. One or two novelties among thousands of individuals of the common type are not easily found, especially when the differences are slight and new, and thereby apt to be overlooked. Much care is to be given, and the trials have to be repeated with the same species in succeeding years. With increasing experience the chances of dis- cerning the small indications of novelties are rapidly augmented. No differentiating marks, however slight, should be considered as insignificant. All aberrant individuals should be planted separately and protected with all the care required to insure the fullest devel- opment. Many of them afterwards prove to be only fluctuating variants or to have deceived the experimenter. They are simply discarded. It is quite sufficient if some remain and prove to be mutants. As soon as in this manner a mutable strain will be dis- covered the greater part of the other species may be excluded, although the search for new mutable species should never be wholly neglected. Each year some new forms should be taken into cul- ture, in order to have sufficient chances of gradually increasing the evidence concerning the occurrence of mutability in nature. 5 48 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. The chief object of this inquiry, however, must be the study of the mutable strain itself. Some of its seeds yield new species, while others are more conservative. Thence the question, Which seeds mutate, and by which causes are they elected to do so ? The loca- tion of the mutating seeds within the fruit, the position of the pre- ferred fruits on the spikes, the influence of the individual strength of the sundry branches, and many other points have to be investi- gated. Further, it is probable that the degree of mutability, or, in other words, the yield of mutating seeds, is more or less dependent on the outer life-conditions. Thence the necessity of studying the influence of culture in general, of light and heat, of soil and water, and last, but not least, of manure. Extreme combinations of these factors should be tried to see whether perhaps they may give ex- treme results. Underlying all and directing all the efforts should be the hope of obtaining such a knowledge of the phenomenon as would enable us to take the whole guidance of it into our own hands. Obviously, this aim lies within the possibilities of the first series of years. Exact methods of working, severe isolation of the single individuals, artificial fecundation with complete exclusion of the visits of insects, and abov'e all the great principle of individual seed- saving and seed-sowing, have to be the guides. Following the lines which are indicated by these prescriptions, gradually a power will be developed which will first enable us to increase the number of mutating seeds and afterwards to widen the range of mutability. New and unexpected species will then arise, and methods will be discovered which might be applied to garden plants and vegetables, and perhaps even to agricultural crops, in order to induce them to yield still more useful novelties. Increase of knowledge of all the peculiarities which accompany the phenomenon of mutability is the most immediate requirement. On the foundation of the study of one single instance this increase can not be sufficiently broad. Other cases may display other features, and the problem is to be attacked from different sides. A broad foundation knowledge of phenomena is the most assured way to success. Eadies and gentlemen, it is a high honor for me that this labora- tory has been founded, and that the members of the board and the director have invited me to be its godfather. During a long series of years I have fostered my conception of sudden mutability and cultivated my primroses for myself and for myself only. Nobody REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 49 kuew about them. I loved them and cared for them and enjoyed the security of perfect secrecy. It was the full quietness of pure scientific research. Of course I had the hope of doing something that might prove useful to science, but I lived in the conviction that many years, and perhaps a whole lifetime, were needed to reach so great a result. I felt myself secure and at ease, since there was no fear that anybody could infringe upon my work. The chance of a discovery of my primroses and of their curious qualities by anybody else seemed too small, because of the concealed position of the original locality. Some years ago I allowed myself to be induced to betray my secret and to deliver it to the scientific world. It has at once been taken up by your countrymen, and the foundation of this laboratory is the mightiest and most dreadful competition that I could have. I have to give up security and freedom, quietness and calmness, and all that secrecy which I so dearly loved. I have to submit to the prospect of being soon surpassed and largely excelled on the path which until now I considered as my own. I have to yield my much beloved child. But I do it gladly and without regret. It is the interest of the child itself which commands me. It will be better in your hands, Mr. and Mrs. Davenport, and in yours, lady and gentleman officers of the staff. Pray have good care of it and educate it assiduously, that it may become one of the most brilliant parts of your work, a glory to this laboratory and to the institution that founded it, a pride to your country, and a bliss for humanity. 50 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT TORTUGAS, FLORIDA. First Report of Progress. By Ai^fred GoIvDSborough Mayer. The ExecutiYe Committee of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington having authorized the establishment of a laboratory for the study of marine biology at Tortugas, Florida, I have the honor to report as follows upon the results attained. The director was unable to assume active charge of the work until June i, 1904. The Department of Commerce and Labor and the U. S. Light- House Board generously granted to the Carnegie Institution a license for a suitable site for the laboratory upon Loggerhead Ke}', Tortugas, Florida, and in this connection the director wishes to express on behalf of the laboratory his appreciation of the liberal spirit displayed by Hon. George B. Cortelyou, Secretary of the Department of Com- merce and Labor ; Major W. E. Craighill, U. S. A., engineer of the seventh and eighth light-house districts ; and Lieut. Col. W. D. Lockwood, engineer secretary of the U. S. Light-House Board. After consultation with Dr. John S. Billings and Dr. Charles D. Walcott, members of the Executive Committee, as well as with Prof. Charles B. Davenport, Edmund B. Wilson, Charles H. Towusend, and others, it was determined to erect large but portable laboratory buildings, which should be designed especially to be cool, well lighted, and capable of affording to a limited number of investigators unrivaled facilities for the study of the marine life of the tropical Atlantic. It was decided to erect a main laboratory, one small detached laboratory, a kitchen, a windmill for pumping salt water and air, a dock, a shipways, two small outhouses, and a cistern for rain-water. The main laboratory, small laboratory, and two outhouses were constructed by the Drecker Company of New York, and are portable, so that they can readily be moved from their present site and re- erected elsewhere if desirable. These buildings were erected in July, upon the western side of Loggerhead Key, more than 1,000 feet north of the light-house. The ground was cleared of trees during the last week in June and all necessary grading accomplished. About 50 tropical palms were planted upon the cleared ground, in order to shade the buildings, afford protection in the event of hurricanes, and beautify the site. The laboratory buildings were carried by steamer from New York to Key West, and thence to Loggerhead Key upon a schooner of PLATE 4. H I m > z m E O r— O Q O > > o > H O 33 -< > -i H O 33 H C > o o > c < 00 to o 4^ REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 51 light draft, as it was necessary to land the buildings, although no dock was available. This was accomplished without the least accident, although a period of baffling calms caused a delay of more than two weeks in sailing from Key West to Tortugas. A good supply of laboratory glassware, chemicals, apparatus, and furniture > 1 1 1 ^ MAIN 1 1 1 LABORATORY Fig. 3. — Plan of Laboratory Buildings at Tortugas, Florida. was also landed, it being deemed desirable to take advantage of the calm period preceding the hurricane season in order to accomplish this purpose ; 500 feet of iron rails, a powerful capstan, water-pipes, and lumber for dock and shelving were also safely landed, and the dock, which is 84 feet long, was completed in August. 52 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. The main laboratory is L-shaped and is io6 feet long. It is one story high, and the roof contains eleven ventilating traps, thus rendering the building remarkably cool even on calm, hot days. The laboratory- room proper is 53 feet long and ig}4 feet wide, and contains a dark-room, a large closet, and ample accommodations for eight investigators, each of whom will have an L-shaped microscope table facing the north light. In order to resist hurricanes, the laboratory buildings and the dock are very strongly braced, and the foundation posts are all T-shaped on their sunken ends, thus rendering it well-nigh impossible to overturn the structures. The entire cost of the main laboratory, small laborator}-, and two outhouses, including cost of clearing and grading ground, hire and maintenance of workmen, and payment of transportation and insur- ance from New York to Tortugas, was $4,806.13. The director completed a survey of the site and reported upon the same to Major W. E. Craighill. In answer to the petition of the director, the U. S. Light-House Board granted permission to erect the shipways in the situation .shown on the survey map, this being at the place where the last suitable tract of beach rock is found on the northwestern side of the island. A shipways will be necessary in order to draw out the laboratory' vessel in case of hurricane. The director made numerous surface tours while at the Tortugas, and the results of this work will be presented for publication in con- nection with an investigation of the entire Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, opportunity for the study of which will be afforded by the laboratory vessel. In order to study the marine life of the tropical Atlantic, using the Tortugas as a land station, it is essential that the laboratory should be provided with a stanch, sea-going vessel of light draft, capable of making headway against the strong currents of the coral reefs and the Gulf Stream. Such a vessel was designed by Stearns & McKay, of the Marblehead Yacht Yard, Marblehead, Massachusetts, and on April 28 thej- were commissioned to direct the Rice Bros. Company, of East Boothbay, Maine, to construct the vessel. The design called for an auxiliary ketch 57 feet over all, 15 feet 1 1 inches beam, and 3 feet 6 inches draft, to be heavily and strongly built in order to withstand tropical hurricanes, and to be provided with a 20-horsepower Motor Engine Co. naphtha engine. The hull is of wood, copper-bottomed, with a heavy iron keel and two center- boards. There are accommodations for seven men, and the vessel is especially designed to dredge in depths of 500 fathoms or less. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 53 -^ o " ^ s & o 5- U 1* rl ^ ^ 5j aj 9 ?^;^ s S) I' "o o >-i 1/ _ n, i; Or: !; «' • rr, o -*-» ^ — >;c^-a a 9J U * 2 t>5 ill: C U] 4^ ^' K i- 3 « o. u bCo ftco U O u) u. •- xi^-- o-oQ ■" i-i c c ^ oOh J; o . y- o . „ o o I. 05 " as n o-u O _ c« ♦J 1- g-d lii >>2 3 (M r^ ji cs-c re o'C D ^ ^ a ec I— I «3 t« Q - u >-i aj i> 7 — ' .t;s o 3 3 « u U5 3 2; O re J^ t; i^ & 0"J3 * ■« 2 •5,'° £ ^ 1-. 11 .— ,1-H P^ Fig. 4. — Map of North End of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, showing site of Carnegie Institution Laboratory. 54 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. The vessel was launched at East Boothbaj^, Me., on August 19, 1904, and completed on August 24. Her cost, including designer's fees, engine, 3,300 feet of Swedish iron dredging rope, winch and friction clutch, plumbing, and one ton of lead ballast, was $6,037.60. The vessel proves to be one of the ablest yachts of her dimensions on our coast and displays her best qualities in heavy weather. She will make better than 8 points in tacking in a strong breeze, and will either sail or go under power at an 8-knot rate. The gale of September 15, 1904, in which the wind blew at the rate of more than 76 miles an hour, proved her ground tackle to be thoroughly efficient. The vessel is equipped with a full set of trawls, dredges, deep-sea and surface nets, chemicals, glassware, and apparatus for the study of marine life. She also carries a 15-foot naphtha launch tender, a barometer, sextant, log, U. S. Coast Pilot directions, and a full set of charts of the Atlantic seaboard. Her cabin is designed to pro- vide ample room for such laboratory work as can be accomplished at sea, and in this respect is superior to the majority of vessels of twice her length. The vessel can best be handled by a crew composed of a sailing master and two men, one of whom serves as cook and steward, the sailing master attending the engine when under power. Under this management the director assumes command of the vessel, taking an active part in her navigation. The voyage from East Boothbay, Me., to New York was accom- plished between August 24 and September 2 5 , more than a week having been spent in Gloucester, Mass., in fitting out the vessel. Many surface hauls were made and some shore collecting accomplished. The success or failure of the laboratory must depend upon the use made of the excellent facilities which are there afforded. Every pos- sible encouragement must be given to eminent naturalists to pursue their investigations at the laboratory, and their researches must be published in a manner befitting the high aims of the Carnegie Institution. PLATE 5. *:1 ' I?)!' y REPORT OF EXKCUTIVE COMMITTEE. 55 ECONOMICS. Report of Department of Economics and Sociology. By Carroll D. Wright. For the present purposes of the department the following named eleven divisions have been established, and the gentlemen whose names appear have been placed in charge of them, respectively : Division i. Population and Immigration. — Prof. Walter F. Willcox, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Division 2. Agriculture and Forestry, including Public Domain and Irriga- tion.— President Kenyon L,. Butterfield, Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, R. I. Division 3. Mining. — Mr. K. W. Parker, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Division 4. Manufactures. — Hon. S. N. D. North, Census Ofl&ce, Washington, D. C. * Division 5. Transportation. — Prof. W. Z. Ripley, Newton Centre, Mass. Division 6. Domestic and Foreign Commerce. — Prof. Emory R. Johnson, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Division 7. Money and Banking. — Prof. Davis R. Dewey, Institute of Tech- nolog}-, Boston, Mass. Division 8. The I^abor Movement. — Carroll D.Wright, 1429 New York avenue, Washington, D. C. Division 9. Industrial Organization.— -Prof. J. W. Jenks, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Division 10. Social lyegislation, including Provident Institutions, Insurance, Poor Laws, etc.— Prof. Henry W. Farnam, 43 Hillhouse avenue, New Haven. Conn. Division 11. Federal and State Finance, including Taxation.— Prof. Henry B. Gardner, 54 Stimson avenue, Providence, R. I. These divisions are actively engaged, except Division 9, in charge of Prof. J. W. Jenks, who since 'the creation of the department has been in the far East and 'has only just returned. The progress of their respective activities can best be understood by stating for each the substance of reports which 'have been made to me. Division i. Population and Immigration. Prof. Walter F. Willcox, in charge of this division, reports that upon the topic of immigration an index to Niles' Register is being prepared under the immediate supervision of Prof. Davis R. Dewey, and a competent graduate student, who is carefully indexing the ma- terial in the library of Cornell University, which library is very ridh in the field to be covered. This work is practically completed, and a study of the history of Federal legislation dealing with immigration begun. I may say that the indexing of Niles' Register and other works is being so conducted as to avoid duplication under the differ- ent divisions. A study of the history of Russian immigration is being conducted by M. E. Goldenweiser, of Columbia University, a Russian Jew 56 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. of education and abilit}-. His work has been interrupted by the illness of his father, but he will undoubtedly carry it to its completion, ]\Iiss E. G. Balch, instructor in economics in Wellesley College, has undertaken a study of the histor}' of immigration from Austria- Hungary, and of the conditions of the immigrants from that coun- try in certain typical localities in the United States, while Prof. Mary Roberts Smith, although not directly under the Division of Population and Immigration, but working through a research assis- tantship granted by the Carnegie Institution, is preparing a history of Chinese immigration. Professor Willcox himself is carrying on an extended study in race and immigration questions that will be very valuable for the work of the Department of Economics and Sociology. I would state, further, that Professor Willcox intends to make the work on population and immigration something more than a statistical state- ment, dealing largely with sociological results of immigration, and especially, of course, with the economic results of the movement of population, its projection along certain lines of settlement, etc. Division 2. Agriculture and Forestry, Inci^uding Pubuc Domain and Irrigation. President Kenyon L. Butterfield, in charge of this division, re- ports that since assuming the work committed to him he has given most of his thought to perfecting the plan of his investigation and finding men to conduct various phases of his work. Under him, Prof. T. N. Carver, of Harvard University, is studying the economic char- acteristics of the agricultural industry ; Prof. F. W. Blackmar, of the University of Kansas, the economic and social influences of irrigation ; while Prof. J. E. Pope, of Columbia, Missouri, is co-operating with the University of Missouri in a 'history and status of the economic and social relations of the agricultural industry in Missouri. Mr. A. E. Sheldon, director of the field work of the Nebraska Historical Society, is studying the history of land systems and land policies in the West. Mr. R. H. Leavell, of the Mississippi Agri- cultural College, is undertaking a study of the race factor in the history and status of agriculture m the Mississippi valley. Mr. Enoch Marvin Banks, of Palnietto, Georgia, is making a research into the tendencies of land ownership in Georgia as revealed in the county tax digests of that btate. Mr. Charles S. Potts is also en- gaged in an intensive study of the history and status of the economic and social relations of the agricultural industry in the Brazos valley. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 57 while others are engaged upon different phases of the economic and sociological aspects of agriculture generally. Division 3. Mining. This division is under the charge of Mr. Edward W. Parker, expert, Geological Survey. Mr. Parker reports that Mr. J. F. Mc- Clelland, of the Columbia School of Mines, is in charge of the work on precious metals, and that during the summer he has spent much time in the mining camj>s of Colorado, and gathered very full data on the history of economic conditions in that State from the time of the first gold excitement. He 'has also obtained notes of mining in Wyoming. During the winter Mr. McClelland will continue his re- searches among libraries, and next summer take up more active field work. Prof. C. K. Leith, of the University of Wisconsin, is in charge of the work on iron ores and the economic influences of mining and working ores. He did a considerable amount of work during the summer in his particular line. Dr. M. N. Bowles, of the Columbia School of Klines, is in charge of investigations relating to copper. He has already collected much material bearing upon prehistoric copper implements and other mat- ters concerning the mining of copper. His researches have been prosecuted in different parts of the country. Mr. Walter Renton Ingalls, of Xew^ York, is in charge of the investigation relating to lead and zinc. Mr. Ingalls is an acknowl- edged authority on these subjects, and he has very kindly consented to prepare the work for the economic history. During the summer he did mudh work in regard to lead-mining industries, acquiring a vast amount of information not previously known. He has in the past few years collected the most complete notes on the 'history of zinc mining and metailurg}- and the uses of the metal, and the Carnegie Institution will have the Ijenefit of the knowledge already obtained. Mr. W. S. Landis, of Lehigh University, is in charge of some studies relating to chromium and manganese. He has already com- pleted the entire reference work on these two subjects, and the work seems to be in a most satisfactory condition. Mr. H. H. Stock, editor of "Mining and Minerals." is in charge of the investigation relating to anthracite coal. During the summer Mr. Stoek was engaged in collecting and arranging a large amount of historical data showing the economic development of this vast industry, and his work is in favorable condition. 58 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Mr. Walter S. Landis, of Lehigh University, is in charge of studies relating to the bituminous coal industr}-. Mr. Landis has been collecting all material of historical and statistical nature up to 1880, since which tiine reports of the Federal Government have been available. Mr. Landis is in a position to use the technical collection of the late Eckley B. Coxe, probably the largest collection of books, pamphlets, and reports on coal-tmining in the world. On account of this immense amount of material, the work required to cover a given district is very large and progress some^^4lat slow, but, on the whole, Mr. Landis is of the opinion that 'his library research, so far as this work is concerned, is about one-third completed. Mr. G. P. Grimsley, of the West Virginia Geological Survey, is in charge of studies of petroleum and natural gas. He has access to a large amount of original records relating to this subject. Mr. F. B. Laney, of the Universit)- of North Carolina, in charge of inquiry on building stones and quarr}ing, promises a most inter- esting chapter on this important subject. Mr. Heinrich Ries, of Cornell University, is studying the economic influences resulting from the production of clay materials. For a number of years Dr. Ries has been making a stud}^ of the clays of this and other countries, and he 'has altogether in his possession a very large amount of data necessary for this work. Dr. Joseph Hyde Pratt, of North Carolina, is studying abrasive materials, rare earths, and mica. Mr. E. C. Eckels, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has undertaken t!he study of cement, gypsum, and magnesite. He has been able to work up a complete and considerable portion of his data relating to this subject. He will discuss cement materials, and how far they are economically used in the development of building. Mr. Eckels states that other portions of his work are well advanced. Mr. Ira A. Williams, of the Columbia School of Mines, has under- taken the study of asbestos, barytes, fluor-spar, fullers' earth, talc, graphite, lithograph stone, lithium minerals, mineral pigments, and soapstone. The results of the studies of these various minerals will consist of brief chapters. Mr. Williams has prepared a tentative scheme of treatment, which Mr. Parker has approved. Prof. Charles E. Munroe, of the George Was-hington University, Washington, D. C, has taken up chemical materials, and will prepare a report on that subject, but in cooperation with the report on chemical manufactures under the charge of Mr. North. Mr. Parker reports that he has not yet arranged definitely for the REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 59 history of mining legislation. Undoubtedly this work is practically in existence through the history already published by Mr. Curtis Linde, of San Francisco, and probably a condensation of Mr. Linde's work will be ample for the purposes of 'this department. Division 4. Manufactures. Hon. S. N. D. North, Director of the Census, in charge of this division, was delayed some months in taking up active work, but he reports that substantial and satisfactory progress has resulted from his labors during the past summer. He has secured the cooperation of a number of gentlemen whose qualifications for participating in the work under 'his charge are of the 'highest order, and who will come into it with an interest and an enthusiasm essential to the best results. Prof. W. P. Patterson, of the University of Iowa, is engaged to make a study of the natural resources of the country in tlheir economic relation to manufactures, and of national characteristics. Prof. G. D. Luetscher, of George School, Pennsylvania, will pre- pare that portion of the economic history which relates to the economic influence of legislation in the development of American manufactures. This study will cover legislation in both the colonial and the subsequent periods of our history. Dr. U. B. Phillips, of the University of Wisconsin, in collaboration with Dr. Charles McCarthy, will prepare that section of our history which will deal with the economic influence of slavery on the develop- ment of manufactures in the Southern States. Prof. Henry R. Mussey, of the School of Commerce of New York University, is studying the history of iron and steel manufacture, including both colonial and subsequent periods. He has been at work during the summer, and has entirely completed his researches in respect to the colonial period. Prof. M. B. Hammond, now of the University of Ohio, has charge of the chapter relating to the history of cotton manufacture. Mr. NortJh considers himself fortunate in securing for Carnegie Institu- tion the services of Professor Hammond. Other gentlemen will take up specific chapters relating to the economic development of special industries. Division 5. Transportation. Prof. William Z. Ripley, of Harvard University, is in charge of this division. He reports that Dr. U. B. Phillips, of Wisconsin, has 6o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. been collecting material and has made personal research on various points. Mr. A. D. Adams, of the Harvard Law School, is studying the early pooling of freight traffic, while Professor Meyer, of Madi- son, Wisconsin, will arrange the 'history of raiLway legislation. Mr. S. Daggett has nearly completed a study of railway reorgani- zations, while Dr. T. W. Mitchell, of the University of Pennsylvania, is working on early railroad finance. Prof. A. Pope, of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin, is engaged on some historical matters concerning the railroads of that State. Dr. Ripley himself has been working on the history of rate^naking systems in the Southern States, which he will follow by a comparison of the history in the trunk-Hne territory. He has had a number of ■men working during the summer who have not yet turned in the results of their labors, but he is making satisfactory progress in his division. Division 6. Domestic and Foreign Commerce. Prof. Emory R. Johnson, of the University of Pennsylvania, who is in dharge of this division, has been actively engaged personally and throug*h various assistants. He 'has with him Mr. A. A. Giesecke, of the graduate department of the University of Pennsylvania, who is assisting in the study of the American merchant marine. The subject of American foreign trade is being ably investigated by Mr. S. Huibner, assistant in the Department of Commerce of the University of Pennsylvania. This gentleman has collected a large amount of statistical and other data for the period from 1789 to the present time. He will study the colonial period after the national period has been covered. The history of American coastwise commerce is being studied by Mr. Thomas Conway, jr., a Plarrison scholar in the graduate de- partment of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Conway has nearly exhausted the printed sources of information for the years since 1789, and is now studying the economic influences of commercial organization as derived from trade journals and other sources of information, original and otherwise. There is a great lack of official statistics in this direction ; consequently much must be ascertained from original research. Dr. J. R. Smith, instructor in commerce at the University of Pennsylvania, has been at work upon the organization and adminis- tration of commerce; (he has enlarged the scope of his studies some- what and is to prepare a monograph for our purpose. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 6l The legal and administrative relations of the Federal, State, and local governments in the United States to commerce have been under- taken by Mr. J. B. Byall, of Philadelphia. The work of Dr. Smith and Mr. Byall has nearly covered the fourtih subdivision of the gen- eral subject of American commerce, which comprises the organiza- tion and administrative features. Mr. Raymond McFarland has prepared an outline of the history of American fisheries. Work is also being done on the American consular service as it relates to commerce. The Library of Congress is now preparing, at the request of Professor Johnson, a bibliography of American commerce. An effort will be made to have this bibliography as comprehensive as practicable, because it is expected that the work of the Library of Congress will be of assistance to all persons who may work on the history of American commerce. Division 7. Money and Banking. Dr. Davis R. Dewey, of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, has charge of this division. During the past year he has been engaged chiefly in locating the sources of information which are available for research investigation in the history of banking, and in particular he has endeavored to secure information relative to original sources of information, such as State reports, reports of State banks, etc. He has culled everything, and has arranged all these sources of information for the purpose of showing the com- mercial growth of banking in different sections of the country. He will deal with credit operations, which must be considered commer- cially as well as from the institutional standpoint. While some of his tabulations are not to be published in the history, they are essen- tial as a basis of analysis. Doctor Dewey has bad three assistants working on State super- vision of banks in Massachusetts, the history of trust companies in Massachusetts, and the history of savings-banks in that State. Dr. Wesley C. Mitchell, of the University of California, is prosecuting an investigation relative to the effects of legal-tender issues on prices and wages between 1865 and 1879, the latter being the date of specie resumption. Doctor Dewey has also superintended the making of indexes of different works relating to banking, etc., and has noted material for other collaborators in the progress of this work, this being done to avoid duplication. 62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Division 8. The IvAbor Movement. This division of the Department of Economics and Sociology is under my own charge. Dr. J. H. Hollander, of Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, with a corps of graduate students, has been for a long time engaged upon 'the study of all elements or phases of trades unions, including their history, development, constitutions, methods, mem- bership, etc. He has made fine progress with this work, and all the results of his studies are to be available for the economic history of the Carnegie Institution. A topical analysis of all labor laws of the United States and an analysis of the decisions of courts interpreting them are in process of preparation. These analyses will be so arranged that in a very brief and concrete statement one can learn just exactly what prin- ciples of law relative to the relations of employer and employee have been adopted in any State. Many of the other features coming under this division require principally classification and arrangement, as the information con- cerning strikes, injunctions, boycotts, emploA'ers' liability, the hours of labor, wages, etc., is in existence. The official reports of the Federal and State governments and tJhe investigations of individual students are to be utilized and their results co-ordinated. Dr. Richard T. Ely, of the University of Wisconsin, has pro- jected quite an ambitious work on industrial democracy, in the prep- aration of which he will make various original studies. I have ar- ranged with Dr. Ely for an exchange of data in order to avoid the expense attending duplication of research. Division 9. Industrial. Organization. Dr. J. W. Jenks, of Cornell University, is in charge of this division, but, as already explained, on account of his absence in China for the Federal Government, he has not entered actively upon the discharge of his duties. » Division 10. Social LegisIvATion, IncIvUding Provident Institutions, Insurance, Poor Laws, etc This division is under the leadership of Prof. Henry W. Far- nam, of the Sheffield School, New Haven. Professor Farnam has made considerable progress in his work, and has had under his employment several assistants, among whom is Mr. F. R. Fairchild, who has completed a study of the factory legislation of New York. Mr. George C. Groat, of Columbia University, is at present at work upon that phase of the social legislation of the State of. New York REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 63 which relates mainly to labor organizations and trade disputes. Professor Farnam hopes to organize the work of his division on a more extended scale during the autumn. Division it. Fedkrai, and State Finance, Including Taxation. Dr. Henr}- B. Gardner, of Brown University, very kindly under- took this work. He finds that while the subject of national finance has been gone over several times and the outlines of the subject have been fairly clear and the sources of information practically well known, yet nothing has been done in the field of State and local finance since 1879. His first work, therefore, was to project a study into the financial history of the individual States and typical cities, and he has interested graduate students or instructors in this direc- tion. Several gentlemen have already undertaken to do work, among them Mr. Frederick A. Wood, of Vermont, the author of "The History of Taxation in Vermont"; Prof. C. H. Brough, Ph. D., now of the University of Arkansas, who is the author of an essay on "Taxation in Mississippi," and Prof. St. George L. Sious- sat, of the University of the South, who will deal with taxation in Tennessee. Prof. E. L. Bogart, of Oberlin College, has been engaged during the past year in the study of the financial history of Ohio, and he will continue this work. Prof. W. A. Rawles, of the University of In- diana, will conduct the researches for that State. Prof. W. O. Hed- rick, of the State Agricultural College of Michigan, is engaged in the study of special taxation in that State, under the direction of Prof. Henry C. Adams, of the University of Michigan. Minnesota, Kansas, South Dakota, and California are under way. California will be treated by Prof. C. C. Plehn, of the University of California, one of the best-known authorities on the subjects treated in this division. Correspondence is going on with gentlemen in other States, and they will probably enter upon work under the direction of Professor Gardner. Professor Gardner has engaged Mr. William Jones, of Brown University, who will undertake much of the work of investigation committed to Professor Gardner. Professor Gardner has also under- taken a card bibliography of financial publications, covering not merely the items of interest in his own work, but those which bear upon other divisions as well. In general. Professor Gardner will discuss conditions in 1789, including an account of both State and local finance; receipts and 6 64 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. expenditures of States since that year; a chronological account of legislation, including constitutional provisions and judicial decisions for the same period ; the relation between the finances of the State and the political system ; and general economic conditions. He will also discuss the working of the more important forms of taxation, such as general property tax, taxes on banks and insurance com- panies, taxes on railways, corporation taxes, inheritance taxes, income taxes, business taxes, etc. In addition, 'he will enter upon a study of the financial aspects of internal improvements, and give a history of State debt and credit, and an account of the development of financial administration, including budgetary practice. I may say in general that every effort is being made to co- ordinate and harmonize the work of divisions whose subjects inter- lock ; as, for instance, there are several features under manufactures, transportation, and domestic and foreign commerce that offer op- portunities for conflict, but the gentlemen in charge of these divisions are working thoroughly in harmony, and will see to it that no compli- cations arise. This is true of the divisions relating to money and banking and Federal and State finance. Professors Dewey and Gardner are Vi'-orking together, so that there shall be no duplicate treatment of subjects. All these gentlemen are looking carefully to the fact that when one is collecting information along certain lines it may 'be desirable to enter information for another. This is true also of the divisions relating to the labor movement and to social legislation and industrial organization. A committee of three, consisting of Messrs. North, Gardner, and Dewey, has been appointed to consider and report upon a plan for a useful bibliograph}' of economic history. All realize that the ordinary bibliography should not be constructed, but one that will be of positive use on a most advanced plan to all concerned. I am greatly gratified at the progress of the work of the whole department as shown by the preceding statements, which consist of brief condensations of the reports of the respective collaborators. I have every confidence in the work as it is being conducted. If the work of the first six or eight months has developed nothing more than concrete and workable plans, without very much progress, we should be satisfied ; but it has gone farther than that, and while much remains to be done in the way of formulation of methods of procedure and their co-ordination into one general plan, nevertheless there is no doubt now of the success of the work committed to the Department of Economics and Sociology. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 65 HISTORICAL RESEARCH. By Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director. The work of the Bureau of Historical Research during the past year has been of various kinds. Considerable time has been consumed in assisting or giving suggestions to historical investigators who have come to Washington in search of material for their work. In a few cases documents have been hunted out and copied for the use of those who were unable to come to discover the material for themselves. The experience of the year seems to prove that, while this incidental work does not give at first very tangible results, it is of considerable value and justifies in itself the existence of the Bureau in Washington. At the beginning of the year the hope was entertained that the Guide to the Archives in Washington would soon be completed, but the work was not entirely finished until the first of October. The completed volume, bearing the title, " Guide to the Archives of the Government of the United States at Washington," is a book of over 200 pages. It describes in general terms the historical collections and the admini.strative records of all branches and departments of the government. Practically every bureau, commission, or office having its independent records receives attention ; its duties are in- dicated, and the character of its records briefly described. This work was begun in January, 1903, b}- Mr. C. H. Van Tyne and Mr. W. G. Leland, and was carried to completion b)^ the Bureau, most of the work after October, 1903, being done by Mr. Leland. Though nec- essarily condensed, for the book purports to be only a guide based on a general survey, it represents much labor, for often the acquiring of accurate information, which was in the end told in a few words on the printed page, required days of patient looking and questioning. The guide will help the historical investigator to know where to look for his materials, will in many instances let him know whether he can reasonably expect to find the materials he seeks, and will, more- over, furnish the necessary basis for further study of the historical records of the government. Prof. Charles M. Andrews, of Bryn Mawr, has made for the Bureau an examination of the British archives, and has prepared a prelimi- nary report on the character, extent, and location of the materials for the study of American history. This report will soon be printed, probably in the American Historical Review, and will serve admirably as a basis for more extended as well as a more particular examina- 66 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. tion. With a little more work, Professor Andrews can prepare a general and comprehensive survey of the sources of American history in the Public Record Office and all the other important places of deposit in Great Britain. Steps have also been taken to gather information concerning such transcripts from English archives as are now in the libraries of this country, and through the kindness and courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society a list of documents in English archives that are now in print and throw light on American history has been turned over to this Bureau for its use. This list was pre- pared some three 3'ears ago and will need to be brought down to date. When all of these tasks, which are now under way, are com- pleted, the Bureau will have in its possession and ready to print material for a volume showing the character, extent, and place of deposit of the sources of American history in the public depositories of Great Britain, of the transcripts of those sources that are accessible in this country, and of the documents that are now in print. It is plain from what has already been said that the activities of the Bureau have been confined to tasks which, when completed, will enable the historical investigator to reach and use his materials more easily. In carrying out this general idea, it has seemed wise to begin the preparation of a bibliography of current writings on American history. The list for the year 1903 has been prepared and will soon be ready for the press. It includes altogether not far from 4,000 titles. In addition to the ordinary- bibliographical entries, references are made to the most helpful published reviews of the listed books, and with the title of each important book is given in a few words a description of the book, showing its scope and general character. Under the supervision of the director of the Bureau, this work has been carried on chiefly by Mr. William Adams Slade and Miss Laura Thompson, both of the Library of Congress. The work of discovering letters sent to State governments bj^ the delegates to the Continental Congress has been begun and some progress has been made. This undertaking requires considerable time and effort, and it is not likely that the work can be accomplished even by the end of next 3^ear. Various bodies of archives have received particular attention, in order that the Bureau may be able to answer questions as to place and character of certain kinds of historical material. The diplo- matic correspondence in the Bureau of Indexes and Archives of the State Department for the first fifty years of our history under the Constitution has been examined page by page, although, of course. REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 67 not all has been read or particularl}' classified. It is the intention of the Bureau to prepare before the end of the current year a full report on the nature, extent, and condition of these papers, to give a close estimate of the proportion already printed in the "American State Papers," and to indicate the nature of the important histor- ical information they contain, especially in periods of peculiar inter- est. A large portion of this task has already been accomplished. A few documents of special importance have been discovered and edited, notably a sketch of " Pinckney's Plan for a Constitution, 1787," printed in the "American Historical Review," July, 1904. The beginning of what it is hoped may be a valuable series of monographs has been made by the publication of ' ' The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy, 1 787-1 798," by Prof. E. D. Adams, of Stanford Universit}'. The task of making a full list of the Washington letters has been begun. While there are many of these letters in a few collections, others are widely scattered throughout this country and Europe, and the preparation of anything approximating a complete list will naturally be the work of some years. 68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. The subject of an international magnetic bureau is fully pre- sented by Dr. L>. A. Bauer in Year Book No. 2, accompanying papers, pp. 203-212. The Executive Committee recommended to the Board of Trustees that a grant of $20,000 be made for magnetic research by the Carnegie Institution, it being proposed not to take up such magnetic work as is already well provided for by national bureaus, but only such as lies outside the proper sphere of activity of these bureaus, the nature of whose appropriations usually limit their work within the confines of their countries. Furthermore, the purpose is to gather together and unite in one harmonious whole all existing knowledge and facts, so that the directions in which future work can most profitably be accomplished will be set forth. The investigations promise not onl}^ to have scientific utility, but to reach results of great practical importance, e. g., the determination of the magnetic data necessarj^ for safe navigation at sea. The favorable action of the Trustees at the annual meeting in December, 1903, and the reference of the project to the Executive Committee resulted in the formation of a Department of Interna- tional Research in Terrestrial Magnetism, with Dr. E. A. Bauer as director, and with authorization to begin work April i, 1904. The first allotment was $20,000. Report of the Department of International Research IN Terrestrial Magnetism. By L. a. Bauer. In conformity with the authority conveyed in the Secretary's letter of March 29, 1904, the work of the above department was begun on April i, 1904, and since then has been steadily prosecuted. The foreign advisory council consists at present of the following members : Professors J. Elster and H. Geitel, of Wolfenbiittel, Ger- many (advisers in atmospheric electricity) ; Prof. E. Mascart, Director of the Bureau Central Meteorologique of France ; Prof. A. Schuster, Director of the Physical Laboratory, Owens College, Manchester, England ; Prof. Adolf Schmidt, in charge of the Potsdam Magnetic Observatory, Germany. Owing to the large amount of office work that could at once be taken up with the force available, it proved advantageous on ac- count of the conditions under which .some of those employed could REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 69 render service, to rent modest private quarters in addition to those furnished in the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office. Such other requisite facilities as were possible were readily and courteously furnished by the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for the furtherance of the work of the department ; thus instruments and books were loaned, and training in observation and computing was given to certain employees. OFFICE WORK PERFORMED. Investigation I. A general compilation and discussion of magnetic data for the complete presentation of our existing knowledge of the secular variation of the earth's magnetism over the entire globe, with the view of determining the points at which it will be necessary to repeat observations at suitable intervals, for the successful scientific investigation and deter- mination of the causes and their modes of action, and for ascertaining the proper corrections to magnetic charts to refer them to a desired date. This investigation is in progress and will require some time for completion. It involves a number of initial, related researches for furnishing the necessary data and methods so as to permit exhibit- ing and publishing the results on a consistent and homogeneous basis. Thus, frequently a critical study of the observer's methods and instruments must be made in order to furnish clues for the in- terpretation of discrepancies either between his own results or be- tween his and those of another observer at the same station. So also it has been found necessary to make a critical study of the existing magnetic maps since those of Sabine for 1840-45, with the view of exhibiting the state of our existing knowledge of the distri- bution of the magnetic forces and of the secular changes. Like- wise, in order to furnish the necessary reduction corrections to the observed quantities, it was requisite to make a compilation of data pertaining to the diurnal variation of the magnetic elements and to determine the laws governing their geographical distribution. From these correlated studies useful permanent information has been obtained and certain interesting and important results deduced, of which the chief ones are : Comparatively little increase in our knowledge of the gen- eral distribution of the earth's magnetic forces has been made during the past half-century, in consequence of which certain constants requisite for the theory of the earth's magnetism are not known at present with any greater degree of certainty than for the epoch of the construction of Sabine's charts (1840-45). 70 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. In spite of the apparently vast accumulation of data, such an important question as whether the earth's magnetic energy is increasing or decreasing and the annual rate of change can not be definitely answered. The chief reason for this unfortunate state of affairs is that the accumulated material has not the required general distribution, but pertains chiefly to civilized and restricted land areas, leaving almost neglected the greater part of the earth covered by water. Systematic magnetic survej^s of the oceanic areas are entirely lacking, such results as are at hand having been obtained from occasional expeditions or incidentally to other work. There is here revealed to the Institution a most useful and promising field of work, and definite recommendations pertaining to this matter will be given in a separate communication. The completion of the critical study of the modern magnetic charts furnished the necessary data for drawing the following conclusion of great interest in terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and meteorology, viz : All of the modern magnetic charts — /. e., since those of Sabine for 1840-45 — unite in indicating the probable existence of vertical earth-air electric currents of the average intensity over the region 45° N. to 45° S. of ^ of an ampere per square kilometer of surface. These currents of positive electricity pro- ceed upward (from the earth into the air) near the equatorial regions, where there are ascending air currents, and downward near the parallels 25° to 30°—/. r. , in the regions of descending air currents. Near the parallels 40° the electric currents are again upward, thus corresponding once more with the general atmospheric circulation. Beyond the parallels 45° the results appear too uncertain to warrant drawing a definite conclusion. In order to make some tests as to the manner of distribution of the upward and downward electric currents, the currents over quad- rilaterals bounded by two parallels 10° apart and two meridians, likewise 10° apart, have been derived for the entire region from 60° N. to 60° S. for the three epochs 1842, 1880, and 1885. As a general result it did not appear as though the directions of the electric currents — whether up or down — were to be associated with the distribution of land and water. There was, however, a decided indication, Air each epoch, that over the areas of low pressure, where the air currents are upward, there the electric currents were likewise, in general, upward, and that over the areas of high pressure, where there are descending air currents, there the electric currents were likewise descending. REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 7 1 Thus, as the average result from the three epochs we have : Region. Quantity of electricity. 60° N t 6 ° ^ / ^°'' ^^^^^ °f ^°^ pressure + 829 X 10* amperes. .00 . . ^ p^^ areas of high pressure — 638 X 10* amperes. (+ means upward electric currents ; — means downward electric currents.) The average eflfect of electric currents for the region 45° N. to 45° S. is on the east-west component of the earth's magnetic force, o.ooi C. G. S. unit, or about one-fiftieth of the average value of this component. The average effect on the horizontal intensity is about one one-thousandth part — /. e. , on the order of the error of a field determination.. However, the average effect on the declination is about 0.2°, about six times the error of a reduced field determina- tion of the declination on land and about one to two times the error of a determination at sea by the most approved methods. Another result of prime interest to the magnetist, geologist, and geophysicist was deduced with the aid of the existing magnetic charts. About 65 to 70 per cent of the total magnetization of the earth can be referred to a uniform or homogeneous magnetization about a diameter inclined 11.4° to the axis of rotation. Deducting this " primary " portion, there is left a "secondary or residual field," representing the want of uniformity in the distribution of the earth's magnetism. This secondary field has been mapped out by the department for the two epochs 1840-45 and 1880, the writer having mapped out, in 1896 and 1899, in a similar manner, this field for 1885. The same general characteristics are exhibited for the three epochs. It is definitely shown that the residual permanent magnetic field of the earth is not a heterogeneous one, such as it would be if, for example, its formation were primarily to be referred to the irregular distribution of magnetic materials in the earth's crust. On the contrary, although the magnetic system is somewhat complex, it is yet quite systematic in its structure, consisting chiefly of two main magnetizations approximately transverse to the axis of rotation. There is, therefore, a very strong indication that this field is produced by some distinct physical cause operating in the same general manner over the entire earth. The hope is thus clearly held out that we may still further resolve the residual field, starting with fundamental, physical causes. The present belief is that the chief physical cause of the residual field is to be referred to the distribution of temperature within the stratum of the earth's crust here concerned. For there is a very remarkable correspondence between the prin- cipal features of the residual magnetic field and those exhibited on / 2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. a chart of isabnormal temperatures. It was found that the earth as a magnet acts like any other magnet as regards appHcation of heat. Thus, wherever the earth's surface is relatively warm, on the average for the year, there the magnetization of the earth shows a decrease, and where, on the other hand, it is relatively cold, there it suffers an increase. It was further found that — there is very close similarity between the residual permanent magnetic field of the earth and that of the field of forces causing the diurnal variation of the earth's magnetism; and there ap- pears to be more than a mere chance connection in this relation, as is shown b}^ the simultaneous studies of the vector diagrams for various parallels as resulting from the two respective fields. Investigation II. Discussion and publication of the data on the magnetic perturbations observed during the eruption of Mont Pelee, Martiniqvie, 1902. The data obtained as the result of a circular letter sent by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to observa- tories over the entire globe were turned over by him, as agreed, to the department for discussion and publication. First, the investigation of the notable magnetic disturbance coincident with the eruption on May 8, 1902, was undertaken, the necessar}- information having been extracted from the reports and magnetograms received from twentj^-six institutions distributed over the globe, and most impor- tant results have been derived. It was found that the Mont Pelee magnetic disturbance of May 8, 1902, resembled a cosmic one in two respects, viz : First, that the time of beginning of the disturbance was practically the same around the whole earth ; and, second, that anj^ elec- tric-current sy.stem capable of producing the observed phenom- ena would have its seat chiefly outside the earth. Owing to the peculiar vaporous nature of the products of the eruption, it would appear as though their violent ejection was ac- companied by the formation of electric charges above the earth's surface sufficient to disturb the entire potential of the earth. We thus have had shown us how a magnetic storm can be produced by a tremendous explosion, and the further study may throw some light upon the connection between terrestrial magnetic storms and solar eruptions, and on the modus operandi of the operating forces. The investigation is tnerefore being continued so as to include other disturbances occurring at about the same time, and an examination REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 73 will be made of any possible previous instances in which terrestrial eruptions were accompanied by magnetic disturbances. The average time of the beginning of the magnetic dis- turbance on May 8, 1902, was 7*" 54.1"" a.m., St. Pierre local mean time. According to Heilprin, the hands of the clock on the town hospital were found stopped at 7" 52". As it is not known how accurately the clock kept local mean time, it is probable that the time as given by the magnetic disturbance is the most accurate determination of the time of the eruption to be had. Investigation III. Compilation, discussion, and publication of the existing data concerning the variations of the earth's magnetism other than the secular variation already provided for in Investigation I, and the perturba- tions of the earth's magnetism. In connection with Investigation I, it has been found necessary, as related in that section, to make some preliminary sttidies on the geographical distribution of the corrections due to the diurnal vari- ation of the magnetic elements. More than this it has not been deemed wise to attempt at present, until the correspondence with institutions and persons has been completed. Some preliminary negotiations have been entered into with Prof. Adolf Schmidt, in charge of the magnetic observatory at Potsdam, Germany, regarding the discussion of recent magnetic storms, to be conducted under his direction, with the aid of computers employed by the department. MISCELI^ANEOUS. In order that the department may have full knowledge of material and investigations, so as to avoid duplication and reveal deficiencies, a circular has been prepared for forwarding to persons and institutions engaged in work relating to the department. A card catalogue is furthermore being kept of all publications and data obtained, for ready reference by the members working in the department and for rapidly replying to calls for information from outside. The depart- ment is thus enabled to fill an important need in magnetic research. The department was represented by the director at the following congresses, viz : Eighth International Geographic Congress, Inter- national Electrical Congress (St. Eouis), and International Congress of Science and Arts (St. Eouis). At each of these congresses he presented, upon special invitation, papers relating to the earth's 74 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. magnetism. He was also a delegate to the International Solar Research Conference meeting in St. I^ouis, September 22. The director has also been appointed a member of a committee of the International Association of Academies, which is considering methods for securing increased accuracy in magnetic work at sea. PIEI.D WORK. Nothing further could thus far be' attempted under this head than to place orders, as authorized, for instruments required in future work, study various designs, train certain of the employees in field work with the aid of the facilities furnished and instruments loaned by the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and to test some recently arrived instruments. Preparations are being made for international cooperation in magnetic and allied observations during the solar eclipse of August 29-30, 1905, and a circular has been issued inviting the cooperation of all those who can take part in this important work. Plans for systematic magnetic surveys of the oceanic areas have been carefully considered. One magnetic outfit required for such work has been received from the maker, and the constants of the instrument have been determined. Also a feasible plan for a rapid, systematic magnetic surv'ey of the North Pacific Ocean has been worked out, in collaboration with Mr. G. W. Littlehales, hydro- graphic engineer of the U- S. Hydrographic Office, and with the advice of Captain E. W. Creak, formerly Superintendent of the Compass Department of the British Admiralty, now retired, and of O. H. Tittmann, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. This project is published in full elsewhere. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 75 SPECIAI. GRANTS. TRANS-CASPIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION. (Raphael Pumpelly, Newport, R. I., in charge. |i8,ooo.) In Year Book No. 2, pages 271-287, there is a brief report of Prof. Raphael Pumpelly' s first expedition to the Trans-Caspian region. The second expedition was for the purpose of archeological investigations in special areas noted on the first expedition. The following report is an indication of the character of the results obtained. The final report will be prepared as soon as practicable. Professor Pumpelly left America in December, 1903. A week was passed in Berlin, where he engaged as archeologist Dr. Hubert Schmidt, of the Museum fiir Volkerkunde. Dr. Schmidt had ex- cavated at Troy under Dorpfeld, and is an expert in prehistoric pottery. A month was passed in St. Petersburg in getting permis- sion to excavate in Turkestan. On the 24th of March work was begun at Anau, near Askhabad. The members of the party were Dr. Hubert Schmidt, archeolo- gist ; Ellsworth Huntington, R. W. Pumpelly ; Langdon Warner, Hildegard Brooks, Homer Kidder, volunteer assistants. Professor Pumpellj^ chose Anau for beginning because in 1903 he had seen in a cut in one of the tumuli painted hand-made pottery and an abundance of bones. Its structure convinced him that it had been a site of very ancient and long-continued occupation, and he hoped that its bones might throw some light on the source of our domestic animals. The excavations in these tumuli and several shafts sunk in the city of Anau traversed over 170 feet of the accumulations of successive generations of peoples and extended from recent times down through the iron and bronze civilizations 45 feet deep into the stone age. One tumulus, wdth now 60 feet of accumulation, was abandoned before the other was begun, and this younger one grew to a height of over 70 feet, after which the neighboring city was founded, and has now about 38 feet of accumulation. The time gaps between the two tumuli and between the younger one and the cit)^ are, of course, unknown quantities. In the northern older tumulus the pottery is all hand-made, much of it with painted decorations ; the lower 45 feet of culture-strata (or earth and refuse residuum of long-continued occupation) shows a culture with little or no knowledge of metals. Knives and domestic 76 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. implements of flint abound, but no arrowheads or indeed any w^eapon of offense or of the chase was found in the lower division. In the upper 15 feet there appear remains of objects of copper and lead. Copper without a trace of tin is shown in the only analysis made as yet ; other analyses will follow. These two divisions are also sharply distinguished by a change in the technique and painted decoration of the interesting pottery. The southern j-ounger tumulus shows also two culture periods. Its founders were already acquainted with the potter's wheel, and all the pottery was made on the wheel. There was little painted ware, and that was of inferior decoration. Of the 75 feet thickness of culture-strata, the lower 63 feet show a fully developed bronze culture. The upper division, 13 feet thick, is marked by the pres- ence of iron objects and by a well-defined change in the character and technique of the pottery, and, further, in the burial customs. A peculiar form of burial existed through both of the culture periods of the older tumulus and through the bronze period of the younger tumulus — burial in a "contracted" position under the floors of the dwellings. The twenty-eight skeletons studied bj^ Mr. Warner were of very short stature ; whether of children or of adults remains to be determined by a stud}' of the skeletons. This custom seems to have stopped with the advent of the iron culture. Professor Pumpelly suspected in 1903 that these tumuli were older than the present surface of the surrounding plain. The exca- vations of the present year show that their bases stand buried, respectively, at least 27 feet and 23 feet deep in the younger strata of the plain. In order to stud}^ the relation between the progress of natural events and the growth of these tumuli and their cultures, numerous shafts were sunk both in the plain and to the bottom of the tumuli and of the city, and Mr. R. W. Pumpelly made surveys and studies bearing on the local phj-siograph}' in relation to the archeolog)'. It was found that of the 27 feet of growth of the plain the lower 12 feet were due to natural river sediments and the upper 15 feet to irrigation sediments ; but a surprising result of the study is the proof that this whole growth was a relatively late episode in the life of the tumuli. Only a brief outline of the histor}' can be given here. The streams that rise in the high mountains of northern Persia in emerging onto the Turkoman plains spread out and lose their velocity and deposit their silt, forming fan-shaped deltas, covering many square miles, and each making an oasis. The water is now REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 77 all used for irrigating these fertile spots. Beyond them is the desert. Anau is on one of these fans. The history of these tumuli and of the city is sharply character- ized by the following four periods in the historj' of the plain or sub- aerial delta : (i) The north tumulus when founded stood on a hill at least 7 feet, and probably more, above the general plain surface, its dwell- ings spreading down the slopes. The plain was then increasing its height, through the deposition of river sediments, and continued to grow until it had buried the base of the tumulus to a depth of 2 feet. By that time, or later, the north tumulus was abandoned and the south tumulus founded on an elevation about 2 feet above the plain. The plain continued to grow until it had buried the base of the south tumulus to a depth of 14 feet. (2) Then followed a change of conditions, either climatic or orogenic. The plain was cut down at least 19 feet. (3) This was followed by another change, which caused the re- filling of the cutting to the amount of 8 feet, y feet of this last growth having occurred after the deposition in its sediments of pieces of the thor- oughly characteristic pottery of the youngest {the iron) culture of the south tumiibis. (4) After this, irrigation began, through which the surface of the plain was raised 1 5 feet higher, bringing it to its present condi- tion, in which the north tumulus stands embedded to a depth of 27 feet, the south tumulus 22 feet, and Anau city 15 feet. Thus it is evident that the whole of this growth has taken place since the topmost 13 feet of the j^oungest tumulus was started — i. e., after the accumulation of the 123 feet of bronze and neolithic culture-strata. The base of the 38 feet of culture-strata under the city of Anau stands on the same level as the base of the 15 feet of irrigation sediment that surrounds it. The whole of this 15 feet of irrigation deposit has, therefore, grown since the founding of Anau. The maximum thickness of irrigation deposit in the oasis is appar- ently 22 feet. It was .shown above that 15 feet of irrigation material and 7 feet of natural sediment had grown up since some time after the introduction of iron. Our observations show that the growth of natural sediments was much slower than that of irrigation material. Indeed, irrigation retains on the fields all of the silt which would otherwise flow beyond the oasis. Therefore there can be little doubt that irrigation in this region was introduced during the iron stage of culture. 78 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. The observations made have established approximately the relative ages and rates of growth among themselves of the natural sediments, the irrigation deposits, and the culture-strata. It remains to cor- relate either of these with a chronological date. Unfortunately, the coins thus far discovered were all of copper alloy and altered beyond legibility, and the dating value of the various objects found will be * known only after further study by specialists. If the work should be continued, Professor Pumpelly has little doubt that the culture-strata of the city of Anau will supply the material needed to complete a most valuable time-scale. The objects collected at Anau fall into four categories : (i) A large amount of pottery most systematically collected by Dr. Schmidt and studied by him at St. Petersburg. (2) Five hundred and ninety-eight numbers of special objects, representing all the objects used in daily life except the pottery and larger stone implements. These also are being studied at St. Peters- burg by Dr. Schmidt. (3) Large stone implements. (4) Many hundred pounds of bones of animals which were sys- tematically collected at the older tumulus. These have been studied by the archeological osteologist, Dr. Diirst, at Zurich. A recent report from him shows that in the beginning of the oldest culture zone of the tumulus — i. e., in the lower fifth part, there were only wild animals, as follows : Wild ox. Bos namadiais Falconer, agreeing closely with Bos naviadiciis of the Central Asiatic Pleistocene, which represents for Asia the Bos primigenius Boj. Wild sheep, Ovis arkal Blasius. Wild boar, Siis scrofa fcrus Gmelin. Gazelle, Gazella subgutterosa Giildenstaedt. Fox, Viilpes viontanus Pearson. Wolf, Caiiis lupus. The horse appeared to be Eqzms caballus L. {fossilis robustus Nehring) , agreeing remarkably with Eqims caballus of the European diluvial. Dr. Diirst is not sure that the horse was not tamed. The progress of domestication of the ox and sheep is clearly shown and begins to appear at about 12 feet from the bottom. From the wild Bos 7ianiadicus (^pyirnigenms') were developed the domestic cattle, at first as large as their ancestors, but diminishing to a smaller size in the layers of the upper or copper (or bronze) culture of the tumulus. Equally clearl)^ defined is the gradual progress of evolution from REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 79 the long-horned wild sheep, Ovis arkal Blasius, through the domesti- cated contemporary long and short horned animals, of which one form stands very close to the Ovis palustris of European culture- strata, and with occasional hornless individuals in the upper layers of the lower culture, to marked frequence of hornless sheep in the upper or copper culture. The goat appears to have been imported already domesticated from Iran, as it corresponds to the wild forms of that region and the Caucasus. While only the wild boar, Sus scrofa fcrus Gmelin, occurs in the oldest culture-strata, there comes in at about 12 feet above the bot- tom a much smaller pig, corresponding to Sus palustris of the lake dwellings of Europe and probably derived from the neighborhood of India. The camel, Canielus badriamcs , does not appear till in the upper or copper culture of this tumulus. In the great collection of bones from this tumulus there is no trace of the domestic dog, the cat, the ass, or of fowls. Dr. Diirst's is the most important contribution made as yet in connection with the relation of European culture to Asiatic migra- tions, being based, as it is, on material from excavations. On the 1 8th of May the expedition left Anau for Merv, prac- tically driven away by the vast quantity of decaying locusts in our pits and on the fields. At Old Merv only two weeks were spent, with about 150 work- men, in reconnaissance excavating to decide as to the desirability of extended work and the nature of the problem. This work was con- fined to the ruins of Giaour Kala, a city of several square miles area and up to 50 feet thickness of culture-strata. The effects of the intense heat and of enteric disorders, both on the natives and on the members of the partj^ cut the work short. The results will appear only after the study of the finds, now being made by Dr. Schmidt. In judging what has been accomplished during the past short season's work, it should be remembered that Russian Central Asia is an absolutely new field, archeologically speaking; there have been heretofore practically no scientific excavations, the excellent inves- tigations of the Russian archeologists having been confined to Russia proper, Siberia, and the Caucasus. Professor Pumpelly had there- fore practically no clews to follow other than those furnished by his observations of 1903 over a large area and necessarily of a superficial character. 7 8o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. (For experiments on elasticity and plasticity of solids. George F. Becker, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 172. $7,500.) The space for these experiments, which was furnished by the U. S. Geological Survey, became available in July. A testing ma- chine, built to order by Riehle Brothers, and other apparatus has been installed and various preliminary tests have been made. Mr. Taft, Secretary of War, in recognition of the importance of the inves- tigation, has consented to allow the Washington Monument to be employed for experiments on the elongation of wires under vary- ing loads. A vertical air-tight tube has been put in place from the top to the bottom of the stairwa}', and observations will begin soon. Wires nearly 500 feet in length will be annealed in the vertical tube by electricity and their elastic elongations determined to a minute fraction of a millimeter by Mr. J. R. Benton. It has been shown by Dr. Becker that there is extremely strong theoretical ground for the belief that the load-strain function is logarithmic, and his assistant, Mr. C. E. Van Orstrand, has since reached the same result by an independent method. Experiments by Dr. Becker on india-rubber, carried as far as strains doubling or halving the length of cylinders, have been shown to agree with this law. The experiments of Mr. J. O. Thompson, made some years since in Kohlrausch's laboratory, on steel, copper, and silver wires, have been computed by Mr. Van Orstrand. They, too, agree mi- nutely with the logarithmic law. It is believed that the equipment will be completed by November i . (Investigation of mineral fusion and solution under pressure. Arthur L. Day, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 171. $12,500.) The general purpo.se of the grant was to increase and extend the work of the high-temperature research in certain particular directions: ( I ) By increa.sing the scope of the researches of the rock-forming minerals at extreme temperatures ; (2) by providing for experimenta- tion at extreme pressures as well ; and thereby (3) to develop apparatus for experiments upon aqueo-igneous fusion. The grant was made upon condition that suitable laboratory space be set apart for the purpose in the U. S. Geological Survey. The space provided became available on July i, and has since been equipped by the Surve}' with the usual laboratory facilities, power for an instrument shop, and electrical connections of good size and variety. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 8 1 Plans have been prepared for the following apparatus, a part of which is being built in the laboratory shop and part elsewhere. The work of construction is already well advanced. (i) An apparatus for the fundamental investigation of tempera- ture values above 1,200° C. (2) An electric furnace of the graphite resistance type for gen- erating extremely high temperatures under moderate gas pressures. (3) A platinum resistance furnace, in which extreme pressures are dev^eloped under moderately high temperatures. (4) An iridium resistance furnace (Nernst model), in which tem- peratures up to 2,000° can be reached in a neutral atmosphere or vacuum, (5) An electric plant and regulating facilities for supplying proper current to these furnaces. (6) Suitable apparatus for developing the pressures which will be required for the investigations. The following researches will be begun as soon as the apparatus is ready : (r) A fundamental investigation of temperature measurement above 1,200° C. (2) An investigation of fusion and solution phenomena in certain feldspars and pyroxenes. (3) The development of apparatus for the simultaneous applica- tion of pressure and temperature to the rock-forming minerals in the presence of water. The second investigation is already well under way. ( Preparation of a bibliography of geophysics, requiring two years. Carlos de Mello, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 170. |5,ooo.) The period of Mr. de Mello' s work covers nine months, beginning January i, 1904. The work is being carried forward under twelve subjects, as follows : 1. General and synthetical works on dynamical and structural geology, physical geology, physical geography, physics of the globe, and geophysics. 2. The earth astronomically and geodetically considered : (a) Origin and movements of the earth, (d) Density, gravity (experi- ments and results), (c) Movements of the earth's axis, (d) Ori- gin of the tides. (. W. Several iie^v Diptera from North America. more definite information of the springs near the summit of Mount Wilson. Some of these are located at Strain's Camp, where, for many years, they have supplied the necessities of summer visitors, who frequently occupy tents here for considerable periods of time. Two wells have been dug at Strain's Camp, and these are regarded as excellent sources of pure water. In accordance with the terms of the lease of the property at present occupied as an observatory site on Mount Wilson, the water rights on the mountain are to be equally divided between the owners of the property and the occupants of the observatory site. It seems probable that the wells at Strain's Camp, if properly de- veloped, would supply the purposes of a large observatory. If not, more water could easily be developed on the mountain ; it may appear desirable to obtain water from a stream in one of the neighboring canyons, about i.ooo feet below. The expense of pumping to this height would not be great, and the stream can be relied upon as a never-failing source of wat-er. A water-tunnel on the south face of the mountain has been reserved by the owners of the property for the purpose of supplying Martin's Camp, and is not included in the equal division of the remaining water rights. A method of securing more water, which could undoubtedly be employed with advantage, would be through the use of large storage tanks, in which water could be collected during the rainy season, either by pumping from the over- flowing wells or by catching the rain as it falls on roofs or other large surfaces provided for the purpose. TRANSPORTATION AND CONSTRUCTION. Much granite is available on Mount Wilson for the purpose of construction, but in the portion of the mountain selected for the observatory site it is not so easily obtained as might be wished. This is due to the fact that much of the granite is decomposed, and consequently too soft for building purposes. The hard and the decomposed granites occur together, so that if a quarry is started at a point where plenty of hard granite seems to be present, it sometimes happens that the supply is soon exhausted, leaving only decomposed granite below. Men experienced in matters of this kind have been quite unable to judge whether selected spots could be relied upon to furnish a good supply of 'hard granite. This fact greatly increases the expense of constructing stone piers, since quarries may have to be abandoned after having been opened at considerable cost. However, some abundant sources of excel- 1 64 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. lent stone can be rendered easily accessible by the extension of roads constructed for work now in progress. Numerous fallen trees on Mount Wilson, which are not yet greatly decayed, will furnis'h an abundant supply of fire-wood for many years to come. They can not be depended upon, however, to yield any wood for building purposes, and as the living trees may not be destroyed, all lumber must be taken to the summit of the mountain from Pasadena. This raises the question of transportation over the mountain trail — a matter of vital importance in constructing an obser- vatory. The "Toll Road" or "New Trail." which extends from the summit of the mountain to the foot of Eaton Canyon, is well adapted for all ordinary packing with animals, though it is much too narrow to permit wagons to pass over it. At present, all except the heaviest articles are taken to the summit of the mountain by means of burros and pack-mules, each of Which can carry a load ranging from 80 to 200 pounds. It is evident that transportation of building materials by this means must be very slow and expensive, since the trail is 9 miles in length to the foot of Eaton Canyon, 6^ miles distant by road from Pasadena. But, as compared with most mountains. Mount Wilson is unusually accessible from cities, Pasadena being so close at hand, and Los Angeles, with its large sources of supply, being only 9 miles farther away. For transporting heavy castings and other similar articles, we have found it necessary to construct a special four-wheel carriage, 2 feet in width. On this loads of a thousand pounds have been taken to the summit without difificulty. By widening the trail to 6 feet, the heaviest castings required for a solar observatory prob- ably could be transported. WEATHER. So far as cloudiness is concerned, the records of the Weather Bureau at Los Angeles are of comparatively little value for our present purposes. The fog rolls in from the ocean night after night, and sometimes hangs over Los Angeles throughout the day during the winter season. But Mount Wilson reaches far above this layer of clouds, and thus frequently enjoys sunshine when the valley below is completely covered. Our daily percentage record of cloudiness, beginning on April 18. 1904, may be found in the following table. A dash signifies that no observation was made. There were many days which were cloudy at the time of observa- tion, but nevertheless suitable at other hours for solar work. Add- ing these to the record, it may be said that the actual number of days SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. Cloudiness. 165 Da\ Day of month. I.. 2.. 3" 4" 5" 6.. 7" 8.. 9- 10.. II.. 12.. 13" 14" 15" 16.. 17" 18.. 19" 20.. 21.. 22.. 23" 24.. 25" 26.. 27" 28.. 29" SC- SI" April. 8 a. m. 100 50 o 70 o o 75 100 o 80 o o 6 p. m, 100 5 o 100 o 5 o 100 100 100 o May. 8 a. m, 100 o o o o o o o 70 5 o o o o o o o o o o 25 o .s o 100 100 o o 10 o o 6 p. Ill 20 5 o o o o o o 85 5 o o o o o o o o o 75 5 50 5 o 100 o o o 75 o o June. 8 a. 111. 6 p. m, 75 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 25 o 0 10 o o o o o o o o o o o o July. o 5 45 35 5 35 20 12 15 10 5 6 p. ni. 5 50 5 5 10 15 15 7 5 5 August. o o 90 5 o 30 40 50 o o o 30 20 80 o o o 10 o o o 75 20 60 5 5 o o o 5 80 6 p. ra. o o 10 25 o 100 60 40 o o o 50 20 80 o 5 o 5 o o 5 80 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 80 5 on which observations could be made amount to 132 out of 135. The long periods of perfectly clear weather, pemiitting observations of the sun to be made without interruption from day to day, should prove of the greatest importance in the study of many solar problems which require daily observations for their solution. From the rec- ords so far obtained, it seems probable that observations of the sun could be made at Mount Wilson on more than 300 days in a year. In Los Angeles, during the past twenty-three years, the average num- ber of "clear" days in the year is 317. The cloudiness in July and August was due almost entirely to thunderstorms over the desert to the north and east. The clouds rarely reached our zenith and almost never interfered with the regu- r solar observations (of. table of Seeing, pp. 170, 171). HUMIDITY. The question of humidity is of special importance in connection with the measurement of the solar constant, since water-vapor in the atmosphere absorbs very strongly the solar beat. The results obtained with a standard sling psychrometer. Weather Bureau pattern, are given in the following table. 1 66 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Relative Humidity at Mount Wilson. month. I.. 2.. 3.. 4-. 5" 6.. 7.- 8.. 9" 10.. II.. 12.. 13.. 14.. I5-- 16.. 17.. 18.. 19.. 20.. 21.. 22.. 23-- 24.. 25- 26.. 27.. 28.. 29.. 30" Si- Means. April. 8 a. m. 100 96 60 92 63 60 29 100 100 100 46 58 6 p. m. 85 100 73 79 98 65 50 68 100 100 100 36 71 77 May. 8 a. m. 57 34 46 38 29 36 18 15 22 35 36 41 32 23 27 34 25 46 41 42 28 37 38 100 100 37 38 23 14 30 6 p. m. 80 80 66 49 38 40 31 22 24 41 38 54 40 64 29 19 38 66 64 100 45 43 32 50 100 48 38 33 15 47 35 43 June. 40 39 39 24 20 27 29 23 20 21 19 52 32 34 33 32 31 56 45 40 44 42 30 28 27 42 35 30 6 p. m. 36 39 41 25 24 42 41 29 34 21 17 43 42 30 30 24 41 42 72 53 43 54 32 27 25 36 35 3° 37 July. a. Ml. 6 p. m. 34 34 23 30 38 34 45 49 33 42 57 29 46 25 30 50 22 21 24 35 31 33 38 31 30 50 38 33 24 38 32 56 42 43 iS 24 40 22 25 44 16 24 19 42 34 35 26 50 27 50 32 46 August. 8 a. m. 22 22 29 32 40 34 64 41 28 30 53 61 67 54 37 40 34 32 23 37 58 79 77 69 67 40 43 21 27 14 6 p. m. 43 27 33 30 40 43 43 76 58 46 35 33 65 64 72 45 36 30 45 46 40 33 85 79 56 58 37 43 33 29 14 31 The marked dryness of the atmosphere on Mount Wilson during the summer months may be best appreciated by comparing these results with those obtained by the Weather Bureau at Washington during the corresponding period. Relative Humidity at Washington. Month. Mean. Maximum.* Minimum.* April May 63.0 65.6 77.8 60.6 78.0 100 97 98 99 95 30 41 54 51 59 Tune July August .... * Mean maximum and mean minimum humidity not determined. SOIvAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 167 TEMPERATURE. From March 25 to April 15 the temperature was recorded on a self- registering thermometer. After April 15 this record was supple- mented by observations of maximum and minimum thermometers. The results are given (in degrees Fahrenheit) in the following table. As bearing upon certain classes of night observations, the range of temperature between 8 p. m. and 4 a. m. is also included. Temperature. April. May. June. July. August. Day of month. i a s 3 E 'c B . a 0 s 3 3 I- "■ b£ "^ c 0 CO ■" S 4 4 5 7 2 8 7 5 5 2 2 4 6 4 4 5 4 8 I 5 4 3* 4 10 3 0 5 i 4 3 .a a 3 a '3 i a d.a u « a 0 ed-" a 3 a K a 3 a '3 a . da a 0 cd-" Pi a 3 a a 3 a ■3 a . da ■*<«• a 0 cd-w I 49 56 64 70 79 80 84 84 85 86 79 85 75 79 85 82 79 75 56 74 78 81 78 69 52 53 69 75 71 70 77 32 27 39 42 45 55 51 55 57 57 57 56 50 53 56 49 36 45 50 11 54 38 35 41 49 50 46 45 76 82 80 81 78 75 79 ^J 82 87 77 80 79 81 83 79 73 86 8.i 78 78 87 88 S5 79 79 78 46 53 55 56 59 57 48 52 57 61 60 57 54 53 56 55 59 51 50 55 55 53 56 62 63 57 55 53 4 I 2 7 5 6 9 3 4 5 4 5 5 6 4 5 5 8 5 7 I 2 6 6 3 I 5 4 3 5 93 81 79 80 77 75 76 82 86 ?9 83 75 72 84 93 95 9i 82 89 91 88 82 88 83 83 _ 57 58 56 56 54 55 52 56 59 63 57 50 63 61 66 69 62 62 66 68 66 62 68 62 5 5 8 3 6 6 5 6 2 2 5 4 3 7 4 4 6 I 3 I 2 4 2 3 4 3 2 5 7 3 4 83 90 91 89 91 92 83 87 86 87 88 85 83 86 87 87 88 93 90 86 77 78 81 85 89 87 87 87 81 82 57 66 66 66 68 64 60 64 63 62 64 60 60 60 62 63 64 65 59 60 56 61 62 64 62 62 59 59 3 5 3 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 8 3 6 Q 10 4 4 5 3 3 II 12 1% 14 IS 16 5 5 4 5 5 8 17 18 53 42 41 49 46 49 63 64 43 43 44 65 37 35 23 34 32 25 36 40 29 23 s 41 6 3 6 I 5 9 3 4 8 4 0 2 5 IQ 20 21 22 23 24 2S 2 0 26 3 2 27 28 20 •JO 4 31 3 Means 51-2 32.7 4-3 73-5 48.0 4-7 80.9 55.3 4-5 84.0 60.2 4.0 86.2 61.9 3.5 Daily range 18 »: 2S6 27. 8 24- •! ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. No complete barometric record 'has 'been kept, since this did not seem of special importance in connection with the work. Neverthe- less, an aneroid barometer has been read twice daily since July 13. The maximum and minimum readings recorded up to September l differed by only 0.22 inch. 1 68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WAvSHINGTON. WIND MOVEMENT. With such uniformity of atmospheric pressure, il might naturally :be anticipated that the wind movement would be low. The results of anemometer readings (in miles), made with an instrument of the standard Weather Bureau pattern, are shown in the following table. The "day" results give the total movement from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m. ; the "night" results give the total movement from 6 p. m. to 8 a. m. Daj' of mouth. I.. 2.. 3" 4" 5" 6.. 7" 8.. 9- 10.. II.. 12.. I3" 14.. IS" 16.. 17.. 18.. 19.. 20.. 21.. 22.. 23-. 24.. 25.. 26.. 27.. 28.. 29.. SC- Total. Mean Hourly ineau. April. Day. 140 62 35 40 47 32 70 91 44 33 50 47 691 57-6 5.8 Night. 188 70 144 42 120 109 63 191 51 34 loi 63 1,176 96.0 6.8 Maj'. Day. 99 49 52 29 43 30 34 43 38 44 54 35 41 39 72 42 46 50 105 45 63 66 67 69 63 33 50 21 62 51 57 1,592 513 5-1 Night. 165 iiS 88 91 62 128 106 44 133 1X0 101 80 95 114 no 81 56 136 48 71 82 97 79 136 60 58 loi 73 80 151 2,9 >9 94-5 6.7 June. Daj'. Night. 1.538 51-3 5-1 120 175 71 141 44 185 44 114 61 47 78 108 59 155 55 146 50 66 52 86 43 49 32 75 30 95 23 133 49 61 .56 80 40 58 37 56 30 47 36 74 56 90 37 56 74 103 44 86 52 51 55 59 75 51 42 52 37 60 56 46 2,605 86.6 6.2 July. Day. 55 71 47 34 30 43 40 49 44 43 49 31 42 42 39 33 40 32 38 63 37 43 44 60 44 39 47 41 56 57 53 1,386 44-7 4-5 Night. 145 102 71 41 54 78 44 85 83 77 93 74 81 59 68 50 70 62 78 91 60 37 85 64 56 71 80 57 65 131 97_ 2,309 74-5 5-3 August. Day. 43 50 45 46 60 43 47 33 43 62 49 58 59 44 44 45 44 26 37 36 39 63 63 55 50 35 56 54 55 57 38 1.479 47-7 Night. 95 72 61 48 41 49 80 63 60 78 81 122 71 73 55 80 60 55 58 100 55 104 "3 lOI 64 66 84 107 56 69 54 2.275 73-4 5-2 It appears from these results that the average wind movement IS exceptionally low. The importance of this fact in its indication of a uniform atmosphere, and in connection with astronomical photography, will be appreciated by astronomers. The shaking of a large instrument by the wind is frequently so serious as to reduce greatly the quality of astronomical photographs obtained in windy weather. At Mount Wilson, where a dead calm is an ex- ceedingly common occurrence, all of the most exacting requirements of astronomical photography are completely realized. SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 169 TRANSPARENCY OF THE ATMOSPHERE. I have previously alluded to the dust-storms which sometimes enter the San Gabriel Valley through the Cajon Pass from the Mojave Desert, and those much rarer storms in which the dust is carried by the wind completely over the Sierra Madre Mountains. In the more common form of dust-storm (the so-called "Santa Ana") the dust enters the valley in a fairly well-defined mass and proceeds westward along the canyon of the Santa Ana River. In approach- ing the coast it spreads over a large area and diffuses itself with tolerable uniformity through the lower atmosphere. I have seen from Mount Wilson a dust-storm in the reigion of Riverside, which in twenty- four hours had spread itself over Los Angeles and Pasadena. When it reached this part of the valley there was almost no wind, and the dust seemed to diffuse itself through the air. Such storms sometimes completely hide the Sierra Madre Mountains from observers in Pasadena. Fortunately they are almost always confined to the lower atmosphere, and do not appre- ciably affect the transparency of the sky above Mount Wilson, where daily observations show that the transparency of the day and night sky are very satisfactory. SEEING. Systematic tests of the definition of the solar image have been made on Mount Wilson with a telescope of 3^4 inches aperture, with an eyepiece giving a power of about 100 diameters. At first the character of the seeing was rated on a scale of 5 ; but it soon ap- peared that a scale of 10 would be preferable under the existing con- ditions. Accordinglw the seeing as recorded in the following table is given on a scale of 10. Seeing 8, which is so frequently obtained during the early morning hours, represents a sharply defined image of the sun. showing the granulation and the details of the spots with great distinctness, and indicating practically no trembling at the lim'b. Such seeing occurs at the Yerkes Observatory only occa- sionally, although that observatory seems to be better situated than many other institutions for work on the sun. An examination of the table will show that the seeing is best dur- ing the early niorning hours, although the image is frequently very good in the late afternoon. Shortly after sunrise the sun's limb is serrated, but this effect becomes less and less marked as the sun's altitude increases. Usually, at this time in the morning, the atmos- phere is almost perfectly calm and cloudless. The seeing usually lyo CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. improves and reaches a maximum, where it remains for some time. The effect of the heating of the, mountain then becomes apparent and the definition deteriorates. The disturbances at the sun's limb under these conditions do not resemble those seen immediately after sunrise, but have a fluttering appearance, which we are accustomed to speak of as the "heating effect." In the late afternoon the seeing usually improves, but it is rarely very good at midday. This is not a rule without exceptions, however, as we have sometimes recorded nearly perfect definition during the hottest hours of the day. Everyone who has noted the heated air above the surface of the ground will w^onder, in considering the effect of such disturbances upon solar observations, w'hether these disturbances rise to a great height. A casual observation is sufificient to show that the dis- turbance decreases rapidly in passing upward from the ground, but it is, of course, quite impossible to determine by means of the unaided eye the probable effect of this disturbance on telescopic observations. We have accordingly made manv observations of the sun with the 3^-inch telescope supported in a pine tree at heig^hts above the ground ranging from 20 to 80 feet. The results of these observations clearly indicate that a telescope employed in solar work should be mounted as high above the ground as circumstances warrant. At the lower elevations in the tree the advantage over posi- tions still nearer to the ground Avas sometimes not appreciable ; but at a height of 80 feet above the ground the improvement in definition was very distinct. Probably this is one of the reasons why the solar definition with the 40-inch Yerkes telescope averages considerably better than we expected it would, for with this telescope the object- glass is over 70 feet above the ground. Seeing. April. Hour of observation. April. Hour of observation. 6 7 8 9 10-2 3 4 5 4 4 8 5 7 4 8 6 6 5 7 6 7 8 5 7 5 7 5 7 4 6 4 9 5 4 6 4 6 6 4 10-2 3 4 5 6 I 6 7 5 5 5 8 6 9 5 7 9 7 8 6 5 5 6 6 8 7 8 7 3 7 7 7 8 6 4 6 7 7 8 6 7 4 6 6 6 7 6 4 5 6 6 7 4 7 4 6 6 5 4 5 5 7 6 4 7 7 5 S 4 6 8 7 7 5 7 4 16 17 18 19* 20 21 22* 23 24 25 26t 27* 28* 29 30 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 6 4 4 5 4 5 4 6 6 4 6 4 6 6 4 6 6 4 2 X A g 7 8 Q 7 10 II 12 13 TA — 15 — *Rain. t Snow. SOI.AR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 171 Hour of observation. May. 1*.. 2... 3-- 4... 5-- 6... 7... 8... 9t.. 10... II... 12... 13-.. 14... I5-- 16... 17... 18... 19... 20... 21 .. 22... 23... 24... 25t.. 26I.. 27... 28... 29... 30... 31.... June. It 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20.. . . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Hour of observation. 8 9 8 8 7 6 6 8 Hour of observation. July. I... 2... 3- 4... 5- 6... 7... 8... 9... 10... II... 12.., 13.., 14.., 15- 16.. 17.. 18.. 19.. 20.. 21.. 22.. 23" 24.. 25- 26. 27. 28.. 29.. 30.. 3I" August. I... 2... 3- 4... 5- 6... 7... 8... 9- 10... II... 12... '3§- Hi i5". 16... 17... 18.., 19.., 20.. 21... 22|, 23" 24.. 25" 26.. 27.. 28.. 29" 30" 3it Hour of observation. * Snow. t Cloudy X Rain. g Storm. 172 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. OBSERVATIONS WITH THE FIFTEEN-INCH COELOSTAT TELESCOPE. In March, 1004. a coelostat of 15 inches aperture was sent to Mount Wilson from the Yerkes Observatory. This instrument had pre- viously been employed by Professors Barnard and Ritchey, of the Yerkes Observatory party, at the solar eclipse of May 28, 1900. in W'adesboro, North Carolina, and by Professor Barnard at the Su- matra eclipse in 1902. As used at Mount Wilson, it is supplied with a second plane mirror, mounted south of the coelostat, and arranged to slide on a north and south track in such a way as to receive the solar rays corresponding to any declination of the sun. The ravs are reflected from this mirror toward the north to a 6- inch photographic objective of 61 >4 feet focal length, mounted on the extension of the stone pier just above the coelostat. After passing through this lens the rays traverse a long tube built of wooden framework and covered with paper. The solar image is formed within a small house which terminates this tube at its north end. In the house a photographic plate-holder is mounted, in conjunction with a slide containing a narrow slit, w'hich can be shot at high speed across the solar image by means of a spring. In this way the very short ex- posure required for direct photography of the sun can be obtained. One of the chief points of interest connected with this instrument is the efifect of the heating of the air within the tube upon the definition of the solar image. In the first experiments with this apparatus, the skeleton tube was covered on all sides with tar-paper, just as it had been used in the eclipse work. Above the tube, and separated from it by a considerable air-space, was a canvas fly for the purpose of shielding the tube from the direct rays of the sun. It was found that in the early morning, before the tube had become heated, the definition of the solar image was excellent. In a short time, however, heated air within the tube eompletely spoiled the definition, and the sun's image became so blurred and indistinct that no observations of value could be made with it. These circumstances led us to ques- tion what the efifect would be if no tube were employed. The 6- inch lens was therefore mounted in such a position as to throw the beam horizontally through the air toward the north, outside of the tube and over that portion of the ground which was in shadow. The image observed under these circumstances was found to be much better defined than that seen through the heated air of the tube. We accordingly decided to try the experiment of taking ofif all of the paper on the two sides which formed the upper half of the tube. SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 1 73 It also seemed advisable to stretch the canvas fly at a much greater distance from the tube and to provide means of exit at the top for any heated air which might be found under the fly. As soon as the tube and fly had been rearranged in this manner a great improvement was immediately noticed. The definition of the image became much better and the deterioration observed in the previous instance was no longer seen. The air in the tube remained cool, whereas before it had become greatly heated. These experiments would seem to throw some light on the ques- tion of designing suitable tubes and shelters for telescopes used in a horizontal, or nearly 'horizontal, position. It seems likely that if the coelostat and the instruments used with it could be mounted on piers at a height of 70 feet or more above the ground, it would be unnecessary to use any tube, particularly if the ground below the path of the beam were shielded from the sun by a light canvas cover, stretched at a height of several feet above the surface and suitably ventilated. Of course, the practical difficulties in such a construc- tion are very considerable, on account of the great cost and the lack of stability of high piers. For the Snow telescope it therefore seemed advisable to design a special form of house, in the hope of securing good definition with a solar beam at a moderate height above the ground. Experiments made with the 15-inch coelostat seem to show that this latter instrument is too near the ground for the best results, although it gives excellent definition in the early morning, before the heating of the soil is very great. The design of the house now under construction for the Snow telescope will be described in a subsequent report. It may be said here, however, that it consists of a skeleton frame of light steel con- struction, provided with a ventilated roof. The floor is to be of canvas, tightly stretched at a height of one foot above the ground and permitting a free circulation of air below. The inner walls of the house (which is 10 feet wide at its narrowest point) are to be of light canvas, so arranged that they can be raised or lowered at will. The outer walls of the house are to be covered by canvas louvres, so arranged as to shield the entire bouse from the direct rays of the sun, and permitting a free circulation of air. The stone pier, 27 feet high, on which the coelostat will stand, is also to be shielded from the sun by canvas louvres. The ground surrounding the instrument is fairly well covered with bushes, and the few bare spots can be covered with stretched canvas, if necessary. 174 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Spectroscopic Observations. — The spectroscope used with the coelostat telescope is of the Littrow form— a single lens, of 4 inches aperture and 18 feet focal length, serves at once as collimator and camera lens. After passing through the slit, which is mounted in the focal plane of the photographic objective employed with the coelostat, the rays pass to the 4-inch objective, by which they are rendered parallel. They then meet the 4-inch Rowland plane grating, having 14,438 lines to the inch, from which they are returned through the 4-inah objective. The image of the spectrum is formed on a photo- graphic plate, mounted in the focal plane and a little to one side of the slit. This apparatus is giving excellent definition, surpassing that of any spectroscope employed at the Yerkes Observatory. The character of the results obtained with this spectroscope, and its convenience of manipulation, illustrate one of the arguments in favor of fixed telescopes of the coelostat type, as contrasted with moving equatorial telescopes. At the Yerkes Observatory it has never been possible to attach a sufficiently long and powerful spec- troscope to the moving tube of the 40-inch refractor. Such a spectroscope must be mounted in a fixed position on substantial piers, and the telescope must be so constructed as to permit a sharp and well-defined image of the sun to be maintained in a fixed position on the slit. This can readily be accomplished with the aid of a coelo- stat, provided only that the difficulties peculiar to this type of tele- scope can be overcome. From the experiments so far made, we believe that the difficulties can be surmounted and that the fixed telescope is certain to become an instrument of great importance in the future. CONCLUSION. From the observations given in this paper, it appears that Mount Wilson meets in a very remarkable degree the requirements of a site for a solar observatory. Indeed, I know of no other site that compares at all favorably with it. If a large solar observatory were established there, it might be expected to yield many important re- sults, not to be obtained under less favorable conditions. THE SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY PROJECT. By Lewis Boss. The object of this apphcation is to petition for a favorable ex- pression on the part of the Executive Committee in relation to the general plan herein proposed, and especially ip relation to the project for observations in the southern hemisphere. This w^ork I should like to take up actively within two, or, at least, three years from the present time. In my original application to the Trustees of the Carnegie Insti- tution, January, 1902, I briefly outlined the course of the research in behalf of which I petitioned for aid. This is to remirnd the com- mittee of a special feature of the program then outlined. Briefly stated, the objective point of my general investigation is to find out what the motions of the stars really are, and, as far as possible, what they mean. Specific things to be investigated are : (i.) The direction and velocity of the solar motion in space to be determined with far more accuracy than they are known. (2) To investigate the subject of "star streams" — swarms of stars moving in a common direction like meteors — a. new subject to which •my attention has been specially attracted. (3) To determine with accuracy the relative distance of various orders of stars — a thing which can certainly be done. (4) To determine the constant of precession more accurately than it is now known ; and generally to examine other questions that may arise. First of all, the motions must be accurately known, as the basis of the investigation ; and this is by far the most laborious part of the work — almost the whole of it, in fact. Grants from the Car- negie Institution enable me to carry on this work with vigor. We are determining the motions from all available material, and before the close of 1905 expect to have results for 5,000 of the more fre- quently observed stars. My various letters of application and annual reports outline the character of this work. The value of these results, and of the final discussion, will depend upon the systematic accuracy of these determinations of motion, and upon having a good determination of motion for each star. Both these requirements call for further special observations at the present time. 13 175 176 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. In the first place, we need a new determination of the positions of standard stars distributed from the north to the south pole of the heavens. In response to my previous application such observations Vk'ith the meridian circle at Albany have already been approved and will shortly be undertaken. The required alterations in the instru- ment are nearly complete. This series should be completed within eighteen months, or, at latest, within two years, from the present time. After that I should like to take this instrument at once to some favorable station in the southern hemisphere for the observa- tion of standard stars out of reach from stations in the northern hemisphere. The plan is to interlock the two series according to a special plan of mine designed to bring about elimination of sys- tematic errors of observation, by making them work in opposite directions in the two opposite positions of the instrument. In the second place, we need at the present time special observa- tions of stars that have been neglected for the past twenty or thirty 3ears. We must bring up the accuracy with which these motions can be derived as nearly as we can to equality with that for the general run of stars. There are very great contrasts in the amount of available observations upon different stars. For stars situated in the southern one-fourth of the sky not more than 30 per cent have been accurately observed since 1880, and very few indeed since 1894. Therefore. I strongly desire to observe all the stars down to the seventh magnitude in the one-fourth of the celestial sphere nearest the south pole. In this connection I would respeotfull}' refer to the Report on Southern and Solar Observatories in the second Year Book of the Carnegie Institution, and especially to pages 28 to 31, under the caption "Fundamental Meridian Observations," and to pages 108 to 143, containing letters from various astronomers commenting on this part of the program for the Southern Observatory. It will there be seen that these astronomers almost unanimously regard this section of the work (precisely the subject of this application) as the most important part of the program for the proposed Southern ' Observatory. My wish would be to take personal charge of this work, but not to remain continuously in the southern hemisphere. My plan would be to organize the work, and remain at the station for nearly one year in the beginning, in order to secure smooth running of the observations, with the desired rapidity of execution and accuracy in the results. My presence for a few months at the end would THE SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY PROJECT. 177 probably be desirable, in order to see that no requisite point shall have been neglected before abandonment of the station. The Dudley Observatory would furnish its transit circle and acces- sories, the essential point in the plan being the use of the same instru- ment in both hemispheres. This instrument is one of the finest of its kind in the world and has been used here until its peculiarities are well understood. ]^Ioreover, the graduation errors of its circles have been determined through a diligent investigation in which the labor of four persons was employed for a total of moire than a year — the most thorough investigation of the kind on record. The effect of this is greatly to increase the accuracy of the instrumental results. I have in mind two locations, either of which might possibly answer the purpose. The first is San Luis in Argentina, about half- way between Buenos Ayres and the Andes. This was highly recom- mended by Mr. Davis, chief of the Argentine meteorological ser- vice, as a station for a southern observatory. The second is Bloem- fontein in South Africa, which was very highly recommended by Sir David Gill as a suitable station for the proposed Southern Observa- tory. Last year's investigations showed that Australian stations could only be thought of as a last resort. The plan here proposed is one section of my plan as outlined in my original letter of application to the Institution, and the only section calling for a large annual expenditure. The excellence of the result from the general investigation will depend in a large measure upon the execution of the section of the work to which this application relates. METHODS FOR PROMOTING RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. CONTENTS. Page Letter of Professor Newcomb i79 Letter of H. H. Turner 182 Letter of Karl Pearson 184 Letter of Lord Rayleigh 188 Letter of G. H. Darwin 189 Letter of Arthur Schuster 190 Letter of Edward C. Pickering I93 Copies of the following letter of Dr. Simon Newcomb, in which he explains his views of the ' ' method by which the Carnegie Insti- tution can best promote research work in the exact sciences," were sent to several prominent scientific men. A number of the replies which were received follow Dr. Newcomb's letter. \Letter of Simon Newcomb^ Washington, D. C, May 12, igo^. The following is a brief summary of views which I have at various times expressed to oflBcers of the Carnegie Institution or made known to the public. They embody my well-matured opinion as to the method by which the Carnegie Institution can most effectively pro- mote research in the exact sciences. I begin by setting forth the main features of the situation. I. The nineteenth century has been industriously piling up a vast mass of astronomical, meteorological, magnetical, and sociological observations and data. This accumulation is going on without end and at great expense in every civilized country. The problem of working out the best results from these observa- tions is one which is not being effectively grappled with. The best methods of attacking the problem are little known to investigators in general, being scarcely developed in a systematic form. The result is that what has been done toward obtaining results consists largely in piecemeal efforts by individuals, frequently leading to no well-established results. Another feature of the situation is the gradual extension of the principles of exact science into the biological and sociological field. 179 I So CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. It is through this extension, rather than through adding to the already accumulated mass of facts, that progress is most to be hoped for in the future. II. A consideration which I wisH most respectfully to urge upon the Institution is the great advantage which comes from mutual discus- sion and attrition between men engaged in contiguous fields of work. My own work would have been much more effective could I have enjoyed this advantage more fully, and I am profoundly impressed by the waste of labor shown in an important fraction of current scientific researches through the authors not being acquainted with the best methods of work. III. Under these conditions it still seems to me, as it has almost from the day the In.stitution was founded, that the most effective way in which it can promote research in exact science is by the organiza- tion of an institute or bureau of exact science in general. If I had only my special field in view, I might suggest simply an astronom- ical institute ; but it seems to me that this would be too restricted to get the best and most desirable results. I can not but feel it most important that exact methods should be extended into other branches of science than astronom5^ In defining the field of work in such a bureau or institution a di- vision of physical and natural science into three great fields may well be borne in mind. One of these fields is that of the old-fashioned natural science, which is concerned very largely with morphology, physiology, and vital processes which do not admit of reduction to mathematical forms. Another field is that of purely experimental science. The third field which really needs development is that of obser- vation, which I propose shall be now occupied. The work required is, in brief, the development of mathematical methods and their application to the great mass of existing observations. Doubtless suggestions as to experiment would frequently come in. These would be carried out bv others. » IV. The Organizatio7i. — The first requirement for the organization is a managing head in whom the Institution has entire confidence, who should be required to devote all his available energy to the work, RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. l8l and in doing so should act as the agent of, and be regarded as doing the work of, the Carnegie Institution. He should be supplied with such office, appliances, and assistants as are necessary to commence work in that branch of the field with which he feels himself most conversant, beginning work on a small scale, to be enlarged and extended into neighboring fields as success became assured. The opposite faults of beginning on too large a scale and of making no provision for possible expansion should both be avoided. V. The head of the institute should be aided by a council comprising the leading experts best qualified to advise as to the various depart- ments of work. This council might be an international one, and, if the work of the institute is sufficiently expanded to justify it, should hold an annual meeting. In order to secure the advantages of mutual consultation, attri- tion, and cooperation, it may eventually be desirable that the work the Institution has already undertaken or is now promoting in the vari- ous branches of exact science should be merged with the proposed institute. VI. The institute should be started on a very modest scale. The case is one in which everything depends on correct methods from the beginning. By the adoption of these, results may be reached at small expense which, without them, would never be reached with any amount of labor. It seems to me that $10,000 or $15,000 would be ample for the expenses of the first year, as the number of em- ployees who could be successfully put to work would be small. The principal appliances required would be books, but I think that three or four office rooms would suffice for all the purposes of the first year or two. The expenses of subsequent years would depend upon the ex- pansion which it found desirable to give to the work. Appended hereto are letters on the subject from Prof. H. H. Turner, of Oxford, and L,ord Rayleigh, to each of whom I pre- sented the question of the desirableness of working up the great mass of observations alluded to. Simon Newcomb. 1 82 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. \_Lctter of H. H. Turner. '\ University Observatory, Oxford, November 2^, 190J. I have delayed answering your letter of October 30 for a few days, not from any lack of sympathy with its general purport or doubt as to the value — the immense value — which such a scheme as you suggest would have, but because I wished to think whether I could contribute anything of possible importance to the discussion of details. The result has, however, not been very encouraging, and I must not delay longer a reply on the main point. I imagine you will not find any one to doubt the necessity of a far more extended discu.ssion of results. In the days of Newton perhaps observations were .scarcer than theories, and it was advisable to set them going ; but, once set going, inertia has come into play here as elsewhere, and observations of all kinds are churning out masses of observations which no one is attempting to deal with. There is no doubt whatever that it is a crying necessity that we should organize the discussion of the masses of accumulated material. The necessity extends bej'ond astronomy — to meteorology certainly ; to natural history perhaps, though here the observations {metrical') are also needed, as in astronomy in Newton's time. How, then, to set to work to improve matters? I have no better plan than yours. Perhaps I should approach the subject from rather a different point of view. I should start with the proposition that the amount of critical discussion (/. c. , discussion of any value) of results obtained is likely to depend roughly on the number of men of first-rate ability who can be enlisted into the service. For making observations a moderate ability may suffice, but there is no doubt about the ability required for discussing them and directing future programs. Well, then, I fear it must come to this : That we want more positions of eminence — well paid or honored or both — such as the leading professorships. When Schuster gave his address, which you quote with approval. Dr. W. N. Shaw (head of our Meteoro- logical Office) remarked that meteorology had never had ^ny profes- sorships at the universities (Is this also true in the United States?), and I think the remark went very near to a sufficient explanation of the lack of adequate discussion of results. You can get heaps of people to measure rainfall, but who is to think about the results? It is more thinkers we want. RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 83 Hence my proposition comes to this : Either — (i) Endow more really first-class posts, such as will attract good men. It is no use getting youngsters into the science unless there is some prospect for them ; or, (2) Look about for means for drawing into the work of discussion occupants of existing positions of repute who are now either wasting their time accumulating little-needed observations or are prevented from doing such work by the lack of machinery — /. e. , of funds for getting computing done — for there is a good deal of computing attached to most discussion of masses of observations. One could accordingly meet the present need in a variety of ways. When you were over here I was speaking of a " calculating bureau ' ' (and you seemed to approve). This would follow from the second part of No. 2. If a man (like Sampson or Durham) knew that he could get computing done pretty easily if he would arrange the de- tails, he might be rendered efficient when otherwise his way would be blocked. The relief might be compared to that afforded in the matter of printing and publication which our societies have afforded and which the American observatories are finding in their ' ' bul- letins ' ' and ' ' circulars. ' ' Before printing was easy much good work must have been lost. But this is only one way of meeting the need and is practically included in your method, which includes, indeed (if I understand you rightly), all the elements I have sketched. At the head of your suggested organization you could scarcely fail to have at least one first-rate man, which so far meets my point i. You virtually meet the first part of 2 by establishing, instead of a new observatory to multiply observations, an organization of a new kind, which will set a good example to others, and the rest of 2 I have already considered. I have written truly ray thoughts as they occur, and hope this letter is not too long and rambling. One can not help, when these inspiring letters talking of new projects come from over the water, building a few castles in the air. One of my castles is a really critical astro- nomical journal, for discu.ssing the work of others rather than pub- lishing our own. To some extent the V. J. S. does this, but we could do with an English journal of the kind, and a better one. If you get your way perhaps this journal might be tacked on to the scheme. H. H. Turner. 184 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. [^I^ettcr of Karl Pearson.^ University College, London, England, Jii7ie 2if., igo4. Dear Sir : I have put together a few suggestions that occur to me, priucipally based on ray own personal experience ; but I do not wish them to be considered in any way as dogmatic statements, only as impressions. (i) I agree absolutely with Professor Newcomb's first statement that the nineteenth century has industriously piled together a vast mass of astronomical, physical, and biological data, and that very little use has hitherto been made of this material. The reason for this I take to be that a man of mediocre ability can observe and col- lect facts, but that it takes the exceptional man of great logical power and control of method to draw legitimate conclusions from them. (2) Differing probably from Professor Newcomb, I hold that at least 50 per cent of the observations made and the data collected are worthless, and no man, however able, could deduce any result from them at all. In engineers' language we need to "scrap" about 50 per cent of the products of nineteenth century science. The scientific journals teem with papers which are of no real value at all. They record observations which can not be made of service bj' any one, however able, becau.se they have not been undertaken with a due regard to the safeguards which a man takes who makes observations with the view of testing a theory of his own. In other cases the collector or observer is hopelessly ignorant of the conditions under which alone accurate work can be done. He "piles up" observa- tions and data because he sees other men doing it and because that is supposed to be scientific research. (3) I have had to deal to a great extent with the observations and data of other men in my statistical laboratory, to which appli- cations are always being made for aid in the interpretation of obser- vations. I think I might help to illustrate my point by citing a few actual experiences. (a) Meteorological Statistics. — We ha\'e here a large work in prog- ress. The data are enormous, but without any system. Examina- tion shows that in Europe and America the returns are often un- trustworthy. There is no standardization of method, of time, or of quantity observed. Important stations are omitted or dropped for years, and where a well-organized plan for a quarter of the expense and labor would have led to definite results, the exi.sting chaotic RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 85 mass of data will only provide probabilities and suggestions. Any man with ideas on the subject of meteorology would after a little experience discard existing material and start afresh, or else waste his best 3-ears in trying to reduce material to a common measure, which is really a hopeless task. (i>) Medical Statistics. — These are made by each medical man and each hospital on a separate plan, and without any idea, as a rule, of the points which it is needful to observe in order that logical con- clusions may be drawn. This is especially the case in inheritance of disease tendencies. Further, immense masses of material are wasted because one or other essential factor has escaped record in one or other series. We have had to report recently on cancer .statistics, lunacy statis- tics, and inoculation for enteric fever statistics. Only moderately- definite conclusions can be drawn, because the material has usually been collected without insight into the conditions requisite for draw- ing definite statistical results. (c) Physical Measurements. — The same applies here, in perhaps a less degree, but still quite definitely. Ob.servations on the strength of materials exist in immense quantities. These are largely of no value because the experimenters have had no clear idea a priori of the points they wanted to elucidate. Further, this applies to a whole mass of physical observations which have been made without sufficient mathematical knowledge to realize the difficulties of the problem. The failure on this account of physicists like Wertheim, Savant, and Kupffer in the first half of the nineteenth century is quite paralleled in recent work by men whom for obvious reasons it is better to leave unnamed. (yd) Biological and Sociological Observations. — These are of the lowest grade of value in too many cases. Even where the observers have begun to realize that exact science is creeping into the biolog- ical and sociological fields they have not understood that a thorough training in the new methods was an essential preliminary for effective work, even for the collection of material. They have rushed to measure or count any living form they could hit on without having planned ab initio the conceptions and ideas that their observations were intended to illu.strate. I doubt whether even a small propor- tion of the biometric data being accumulated in Europe and America could b}' any amount of ingenuity be made to provide valuable re- sults, and the man capable of making it yield them would be better employed in collecting and reducing his own material. 1 86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. It will be seen from the above results that I personall}' can not form a very high expectation of the amount of results of first-class value which would be obtainable by forming an institute to deal with the existing masses of observations. (4) Nevertheless, if we reject 50 percent of existing observations as worthless, if we frankly "scrap" them, I still think something of service might be done with the remainder under certain conditions. (a) If the right man were available. This is the chief difficulty. He must be a man of wide appreciation of many branches of science, otherwise a special man will be wanted for each branch — astronomy, meteorology, physics, medical science, sociology, etc. Even were the money forthcoming for this multiplicity of workers, I doubt whether the men themselves are to be found. If Professor New- comb's institute is carried out, the right man for director will be a man of very exceptional attainments, falling little short of scientific genius. I doubt if one man of this type could be procured. It is certain that .several could not. (^) The right man must have been rightly trained. He is to be occupied in drawing logical conclusions from other persons' obser- vations and data. He must therefore in the first place be an adept in scientific method ; he must be a first-class mathematician, statis- tician, and a trained calculator and computator. (c) The right man must be rightly supported. He must have a competent staff of workers under him, and be to a considerable extent a man of aifairs. He will have to reject after examination whole masses of observations and data as unsuitable, and his pro- ceedings will be questioned and criticised. Unless he is a man of weight and tact, he will soon be in an impossible position relative to the mediocre observers whose data he is to manipulate. For example, he proposes to deal with the weights of the human viscera in health and disease. He collects all the available data, but issues his report and conclusions, silently passing by the measurements of some well-known physician or hospital, because they have been made in a manner which renders them of no real scientific value. The result would be certainly controversy, po.ssibly uproar, and the director of the in.stitute would have to fight a series of pitched bat- tles before his reputation as a censor and official ' ' scrapper ' ' was finally established beyond di.spute. He might survive this initial state of affairs if he had the support of the best scientific minds in the country ; but unless he was a strong man he would take the easier course, and simply add another long series of reports on a// RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 87 existing material to the already' overvoluminous scientific literature of the day. The right man will be the man who has the courage to "scrap" and to doit relentlessly. Science wants immensely the courageous pruner to-day; but his is not an enviable task, and the Carnegie Trustees would have to support their man pretty steadily to enable him to be effectual. He will be sure to make some mis- takes, and these will be at once seized on and trumpeted abroad. If we suppose that the above three conditions can be fulfilled, may we not question whether the man pictured would not be of such caliber that he would do far better work for science if he were allowed to use other people's observations where he chose, and to observe and collect himself where he found them defective or incapable of throw- ing light on the branches of science he was peculiarly interested in ? In other words, the director would be reduced to an ordinary scien- tific worker, placed in one sense under very favorable conditions, in another under unfavorable conditions ; he would have ample mate- rial and support, but he would differ from an academic teacher in having no school wherein he might train his subordinates in his methods. (5) On the whole, I doubt whether the founding of an institute to ' ' scrap ' ' and codify existing observations and scientific material is feasible if desirable. I am inclined to think that more might be done by a Statistical and Computatiyig Institute. This institute should have a competent director and a highly trained staff. It should be prepared to report on any data or material submitted to it at a mod- erate fee. This fee might be remitted on the recommendation of the director, or a committee, in the case of first-class work from a man of scientific repute but small means. It would have to be re- tained, however, to prevent a flood of worthless material being sent in to be reduced. The institute might also offer advice on the col- lection of material on observational method and on statistical treat- ment, again charging a slight fee to prevent the institute being used as a source for providing research work for those who were too idle or too dull to discover such work for themselves. Besides, private individuals, learned societies — astronomical, meteorological, or bio- logical —might and probably soon would use the institute to carry out special investigations on the value of material already amassed in some one or other branch of their special sciences. Finally, Government departments would very soon fall into the habit of ask- ing for reports on the special material of their own spheres. The like course would be taken by local bodies in the case of demographic 1 88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. and other statistical material. I think that such an institute would be of very great service, and, perhaps as far as possible, fulfill the functions which Professor Newcomb proposes, without the great amount of friction that a direct inquiry into the value of material collected by men. many of whom would still be holding scientific posts, would certainly involve. Of course one is far too apt to judge matters from one's own little corner of the field of science. We have had a statistical lab- oratory established for some little time, and we find that an increas- ing number of workers send us their data for suggestion and report. To such an extent has this become current that we shall probably have either to institute a fee to check the flow of material or else decline to examine such work, as we are only an academic depart- ment, doing our own teaching and research work, and without pub- lic support of any kind. Still our small experience may be useful on the other side of the Atlantic ; and we have found a multiplicity of workers, physical and biological, want assistance, and further that public bodies and government departments seek statistical and calculating aid also. If Professor Newcomb's ideas were carried out first on material which was actually placed before the institute for report, then the action of scientific societies and public bodies would soon give the foundation an established position, from which pos- sibly the more serious business of codifying and " scrapping " exist- ing accumulations of observations and data could ultimately be carried out without too great friction and controversy. Karl Pearson. {Letter of Lord Raylcigh.^ Royal Institution of Great Britain, November 20, igoj. Dear Professor Newcomb : I am in complete sympathy with the views expressed in your letter of October 30, and have indeed sometimes expressed myself in a similar sense ; but my experience is far less than yours. I sincerely hope you may succeed in organizing such an estab- lishment as you indicate. Rayleigh. RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 89 \Lctter of G. H. Darwm.'\ Newnham Grange, Cambridge. I sympathize very warml}- with Professor Newcomb's plan for developing the Carnegie Institution and think that it may have a great future. I have been trying to picture to myself how it would work out, and I see that while the gain in some subjects would be great and immediate, in others it would be oul)^ collateral. Scientific observations may be roughly classified in two groups, which, however, graduate into one another. I can best illustrate my meaning by examples. The subject of the tides seems to belong to the group which would reap immediate advantage. Observations are now published in the most diverse places and are not properly coordinated. A critical collection of tidal results would be a heavy task and would be of much value. There is nothing in this subject which corre- sponds to probable error in astronomy, for the defects depend on human frailty. It would require a first-rate man to classify and reject observations according to the internal evidence afforded by them. When such a collection was made, generalizations would follow, and the value of the conclusions would probably be great. Meteorology and many other subjects fall into this group. The distinguishing feature is that we know exactly what to observe, that the mass of material is already enormous, and that it is impos- sible to have too much matter, provided that it is coordinated. The second kind of research to which I have referred is inter- mediate between observation and experiment. The subject of observation is to some degree indeterminate, and it depends on the investigator what he shall observe. I can not think of a very good example at the moment, but I may perhaps illustrate my meaning by supposing that we were investi- gating the laws governing the drifting of sand and the formation of sand dunes. It must be obvious that this is a subject of great agri- cultural importance in many parts of the world. Now, it would be almost useless merely to collect maps and photographs. There must be a guiding mind, forming theories to be proved or disproved by observation. The investigation might be expensive and troublesome, but it is essentially the work of an individual. In this sort of case I should not look for any great gain from the proposed institution, except that it would afford a fixed position, with good pay, to men of ability. The exception is important, and it 190 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. brings us to the point raised by Professor Turner, viz, that the search for men is more difficult and more important than the search for facts. I hope that you will not regard this long letter as wide of the point, and in conclusion I desire to express my warm approbation of the scheme. G. H. Darwin. {^Letter of ArtJmr Schuster.'] Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester, August 18, 1^04. In answer to your request to have my views on the letter addressed to you by Professor Simon Newcomb, I will take his various points in order : I. There can be absolutely no doubt on the correctness of Profes- sor Newcomb' s view regarding the piling up of a vast mass of obser- vations, which has been made an object in itself, instead of being a means to an end, and hence a proper discussion has not been able to keep up with the accumulation of undigested figures. The efforts of individuals to discuss results have often been hampered by want of assistance or of funds, and in many cases have been doomed to failure owing to the fact that the men trained to observe are very often not particularly well fitted to draw conclusions. It would be easy to find examples of the waste of labor which has resulted from incompetent work in the planning out of the methods of reduction. II. Here also I agree with Professor Newcomb, and I would like to add another feature of the present situation which stands in the way of the discussion of great problems on a broad basis — the vast mass of accumulating material has rendered it necessary to have a special journal almost for each special branch of a subject ; thus we have a journal dealing with solar physics, and another with terres- trial magnetism, etc. The mathematician and physicist who is probably mo.st capable of dealing with the problems of solar physics and terrestrial magnetism often never sees these journals. If he does he will get bewildered by the mass of detail which is put before him, and often by technical terms which he does not understand. What is required here is some intermediate agent whose business it should be, on the one hand, to place before the man of general science the main results of observations which want discussing, and on the other hand before the observer the main facts and measure- ments which the theoretical .student requires for his work. RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 191 The efforts which have been made to remedy this recognized diffi- culty by the publication of abstracts have, in my opinion, proved failures. To write efficiently an abstract which would give the pith of a paper in a form that can be utilized requires a very intimate knowledge of the subject. In a subject requiring special skill and training this can not be expected from those who at present under- take work of this kind, nor is the frame of mind of the reader who takes up one of these journals of abstracts and endeavors to assimi- late in half an hour the ideas of one hundred and fifty different workers on one hundred and fifty different subjects such as to make it likely that his thoughts will be usefully fertilized. A much more useful plan would be to have periodical reports dealing with the progress of the subject ; but here again all will depend on how far it would be possible to get men who thoroughly understand the sub- ject to write these reports. It is doubtful to my mind whether the best results ever can be obtained by an observer who has not full grasp of what his observa- tions will be used for ; but, dealing with the question from a practical point of view, we must recognize that there are many men who can take excellent observations without any special power of discussing them, and it would be a pity not to make use of such men, provided we can convince them of the limitation of their powers. III. An institute or bureau of exact science, according to Pro- fessor Newcomb's scheme, would, in my opinion, prove useful, as it might in each subject find the best methods of coordinating facts and reducing observations ; but the organization of the bureau would have to adapt itself to the different requirements of the differ- ent subjects, these requirements probably varying from time to time. In particular stages of a subject publication of a list of papers may be what is required, and in every case we must guard against stereotyping any one particular method of procedure. The abstracts which, as above mentioned, I found useless in my own subject might be very effective in others. It would be, as Professor Turner points out, a very material gain if there were a body of men whose special duty consisted in discuss- ing observations and drawing attention to those matters where ob- servation is most required. I consider thf subjects included in Professor Newcomb's third "field" as requiring most attention at the present moment. The bureau should, in my opinion, not only have power to initiate reductions, but should also be able to assist other workers in cases 14 192 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. where its council approves of the proposed method. I may meutiou an example from my own experience. I have engaged during the last two years, at my own expense, an assistant to do certain reduc- tions of sunspot observations by a method which, I believe, will give useful results in many branches of cosmical physics. It would have been advisable in any case that the first set of reductions by this method should have been carried out under my own supervision, but supposing the results arrived at to be valuable and the method to commend itself to competent judges, it would be quite beyond the powers of any individual to extend the calculations so as to include other phenomena, such as prominences or magnetic disturbances, which can be brought into connection with sunspots. The bureau, with funds at its disposal and a committee of directors who could judge of the value of any proposed piece of work, might prevent a block in the advance of science which is at present possible for want of a proper organization. IV and V. I quite agree that everything must depend on the nom- ination of a managing head, although an advisory committee will probably be necessary, and it can only be through the organizing powers of a man who is at any rate thoroughly qualified in one branch of science that the work can succeed. VI. I also agree that the institute should be started on a modest scale. If it is desired that the council should be international, I would suggest that the International Association of Academies should be asked to nominate a certain number of its members. As this association has been founded for the purpose of international cooperation, it seems desirable to strengthen it as far as possible and to avoid the multiplication of other international organizations. I" do not, however, wish to express an opinion at present on the desira- bility of starting the bureau at once on an international basis. It might be better to secure greater elasticity by leaving it, in the first instance, to be an American institution. If desirable, it will always be easy in a few years' time to ask the International Association of Academies to nominate members on its council. I am sorry there has been so much delay in sending you this reply, but, as I have already informed you, I was unusually busy when your letter reached me. Arthur Schuster. RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 193 \_Leticr of Edzvard C. Pickering .~\ Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., July 2j, igo4. Dear Sir : Your letter inclosing a copy of that of Professor Newcomb and requesting a reply before August r duly reached me. The plan in general meets with my hearty approval. There is no doubt that a proper discussion of existing observations is very much needed. This should be followed by suitable observations in order to supply the wants thus rendered evident. To select subjects for the proposed institution a permanent coun- cil might be needed, but when a subject was chosen specialists in that department of science should be employed, who would spend several days together arranging the details of the work. According to my experience, a discussion of generalities by a committee with no means at their disposal is unsatisfactory and the results are of little value. A number of experts, however, having an appropria- tion which the}^ could expend on work with which they were entirely familiar could get much better results than any one person alone. The officer in charge of the proposed institution, with his corps of computers, could readily carry out the plan of work recom- mended, consulting the committee when difficulties arose, or calline other meetings as required. A large part of the laborious work involved in discussing an extensive series of observations in any department of science could be done to great advantage by such a permanent computing bureau. It is often impossible to transplant a man of genius in other sur- roundings without greatly diminishing the value of his work, and it is better to improve his existing conditions rather than try to make him adopt new ones. On the other hand, he is often unable to discuss his own results or supervise large routine computations as well as one who devotes his life to such work. My views on this subject are given more fully in a pamphlet entitled "The Endow- ment of Astronomical Research, No. 2," which will be distributed in a few days. Edward C. Pickering. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. By T. C. Chamberlin. Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith a report of progress on the work done under Grant No. 1 1 5 , in continuation of Grant No. 3 1 . For the general scheme of the work I beg to refer to my previous report (Year Book No. 2, pp. 261-270). The work upon which I have been engaged during the current year has lain wholly within the lines there sketched and chiefly within the constructive phases of the scheme. On the critical side, however, I have reviewed the tests previously applied to the Laplacian and allied hypotheses of the origin of the earth, but have added little to them. The cogency of their adverse bearings seems to be in no wa)^ diminished by reflection or reconsideration. I have developed into more definite terms several phases of the meteoritic hypotheses of the earth's origin of the type advocated by lyockyer and Darwin ; that is, the type in which the meteorites are supposed to be assembled as a swarm, the individual meteorites moving to and fro and frequently colliding after the manner of the molecules of a gas, a constitution brought into clear definition by the classic paper of Darwin, " On the Mechanical Conditions of Swarms of Meteorites and on Theories of Cosmogony. ' ' * Working upon the results reached by Darwin, it has not appeared probable that at a position so deep in the postulated swarm as that at which the earth should have been formed, a passage from the quasi-gaseous into the true gaseous condition could have been escaped, because of the fre- quency and violence of the collisions and the consequent high temper- ature ; and hence, so far as the origin of the earth is concerned, this phase of the meteoritic hypothesis seems to become identical with the gaseous or L,aplacian hypothesis and to be obnoxious to most of the objections to that hypothesis that arise from the kinetic action of the gases and from the relations of mass and momenta, as brought out in the previous studies by Dr. Moulton and myself. Studies in the line of meteoritic swarms have usually started with the swarms organized, and have not seriously considered whether such swarms would be likely to arise. There is no positive proof of the present existence of meteoritic swarms with such a dynamic organization. There are, to be sure, spectroscopic and other grounds *PKil. Trans. Royal Society, 1SS8. 195 196 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. for believing that some nebulae are composed of discrete solid mat- ter, but it has not been shown that this has a quasi-gaseous organi- zation. For the purposes of a critical discrimination it is necessary to find grounds for supposing that this discrete solid matter is organ- ized as a swarm characterized by heterogeneous movements involv- ing collision and rebound in gaseous fashion, as distinguished from revolutionary movements controlled by gravitation and inertia in planetary fashion, which constitutes the planetesimal organization. The two modes of organization are very distinct dynamically, though they are likely to be more or less combined in any actual system. I have given some time to a study of the possibilities of the origin of such a quasi-gaseous assemblage of meteorites. The studies have taken two lines — ^(i) the possibilities of assemblage from a primitive diflfu.se condition, and (2) the possibilities arising from the dispersion of some previous bod3^ d) Inspection of the problem made it clear that a grave difficulty lies in the high ratio of the moving force to the gravitational force in celestial bodies, on the average. The gravitational force is obviousl}' the chief agent to be assigned the work of bringing together and holding together the meteoritic swarm in question, while the moving force is the chief opposing or dispersing agent. The gravitative power of individual meteorites over one another, at the distances involved in the problem, is exceedingh' small, while the average velocities of known meteorites is high and their moving force corre- spondingly high. Estimated from present imperfect data, the aver- age velocity of meteorites is of the order of 20 miles per second or more. This is also about the average order of velocitj^ of stars, as now determined, and hence it may fairly be assumed to be the order of velocity of the average matter of the known universe, and may be taken as the working basis for the problem in question. This gives a prodigious kinetic energy to the matter to be assembled, while the gravitative force between the small masses of dispersed matter is relatively trivial. The individual attractions are all that can be considered until after an assemblage is formed, and it is the fortnatio)i of the assemblage that is here in question. So far as my studies have gone, almost the only conception that seems to oflFer a remote possibility of the starting of a swarm of meteorites under the.se adverse conditions lies in the exceptional case of meteorites moving in nearly parallel directions at nearly the same speed and in courses near one another. In this case the moving forces of the meteorites have the same phase and only antagonize FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 1 97 , their mutual attractious to the extent of such small differences as may arise from their slight differences of velocity and direction of motion. Under extremely favorable conditions of this kind, two meteorites might come into mutual gravitative control and revolve about their common center of gravit^^ Then a third one might join them under like conditions, and so on. The plane of revolution of the third meteorite might chance to correspond with that established by the pair it joined, but more probably it would not. Its direction of revolution might be the same, but more likel}- either transverse in some degree or opposite. It is extremely unlikely that the planes of revolution of any considerable number of meteorites coming thus together would be identical, or that the directions of their revolu- tions would all be coincident, and hence opposite and cross-revolutions would doubtless result, with obvious liability to collisions, so that in the end the swarm might perhaps develop into a quasi-gaseous con- dition, though it might retain a revolutionar}- organization, in which case it would not fall into the class here under consideration. It must be noted that the conditions assigned for the starting of the growth of such a swarm are ver}' far from being the usual con- ditions of adjacent meteorites, and hence the accessions to the group in any given period, if the group were started, must be presumed to be few compared to the whole number of meteorites that would pass through the initiating swarm, for of the meteorites that passed the place of the initiating swarm, all those that had opposite or trans- verse courses of any appreciable angle and all those that though moving in parallel directions had appreciably different velocities would traverse the swarm with dangerous contingencies. They would hence be liable to break up the initiating swarm by colliding with its members and driving them be}' ond their mutual gravitative control. This contingency is especially great while the swarm is small and its gravitative command of its members feeble. Hence there arises a serious question whether the swarm's peril of destruc- tion is not greater than its chance of growing to a self-protecting size — so incomparably greater, indeed, as to render the method an improbable one. The dangers of infanc)' in this case seem to be obviously and perilously extreme and the chances of escape ex- ceedingly rare. A second serious difficulty in organizing hypothetically a swarm of meteorites from discrete matter primitively diffuse was found to lie in the extreme tenuity of the dispersed celestial matter, whether the present amount of such dispersed matter be considered or the 198 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. whole of known matter be theoretically dispersed through the space , now occupied by it. The light of a star in a flight of fifty years does not encounter enough dark matter to seriously dim its bright- ness. All the matter that lies between us and the uttermost visi- ble stars does not cut off as much light as a thin cloud. If all the matter now aggregated in the stellar system, on any reasonable esti- mate of its mass (and the known distribution and movements of the celestial bodies limit such an estimate), were distributed through the space now occupied by the stars, it would not help the case much, so far as the meteoritic assemblage is concerned. To illustrate, if the matter of the solar system were scattered through that portion of space which may be said to be its fair apportionment — that is, the space about it, stretching out half-way to the nearest stars — its tenuity would be such that if the orbit of Neptune were to be regarded as the hoop of a drag-net 5,600,000,000 miles in diameter, and were to be made to sweep through this space at the rate of 12 miles per sec- ond— the estimated velocity of the sun — it would take some 900,000,- 000,000 years for it to sweep up the scattered matter. This is prob- ably not an unfair illustration of the average tenuity of the sup- posed dispersion, since the sun is apparently near the center of the known system where star-grouping might be expected to be at least as dense as the average of the whole. With such extreme tenuity of dispersion, even when all known matter is converted into meteorites, and with such potent obstacles to assemblage as are imposed by the high moving force of the meteorites, it seems an imperative conclusion that the growth of a meteoritic assemblage of the mass of the solar S5'stem must require a period quite beyond comprehension. This conclusion led on the further inquiry whether a swarm of meteorites could perpetuate itself as a szvarm through such a pro- digious period. Must not the part first assembled pass on through its own evolution, whatever that might be, without awaiting the excessively delayed assemblage of the later portions ? If the mem- bers of the swarm were in collisional relations, must not the kinetic energy of the earlier assemblage have been exhausted long before the accession of the latter part ? In other words, must not the first assemblage have become solid at a relatively early stage in the process and the remainder of the accessions have been added individ- ually, as meteorites are now added to the sun and planets? Is it a tenable view that the assemblage of a swarm should go on alone without attendant evolution until the mass necessary for a solar FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. I99 I system is attained, and then, but not till then, enter upon an evolu- tion into a sun-and-planet system ? If the swarm was organized on the collisional basis, nothing but a negative answer seems to me possible. If the meteorites could be supposed to so come together as to revolve in harmonious orbits about a common center, on the planetary basis, the assemblage might perhaps be perpetuated ; but this takes the case out of the typical meteoritic class, as here defined, and carries it over to the planetesimal. Under the conditions of the case as thus brought out, I have been unable to discover a probable method by which a meteoric nebula of the quasi-gaseous or collisional type can grow up de novo by the assemblage of dispersed meteorites or by the aggregation of chaotic matter if the material were endowed with the present momentum of the average matter of the stellar s3-stem. (2) The study of the possibilities of the origin of a meteoritic nebula of the collisional or quasi-gaseous type from the dispersion of some previous large body recognized three possible phases : (^) dispersion by explosion ; ij)) dispersion by collision ; and {c) dispersion by tidal disruption. It is difficult to find any tangible ground for postulating an ex- plosion competent to disperse to the requisite degree a body of the mass of the solar system ; but if this difficulty be passed and the requisite force be assumed, it must apparently act radially, in the main, and after the matter has made its outward excursion and is arrested by gravitation, it must return on nearly direct lines and collide at the virtual point of departure. If the outward movement were of nebular extent the collision attending the return must have developed sufficient heat for the conversion of the whole into a gas- eous body, and the sub.sequent evolution must have followed gaseous lines. It is not apparent how anything properly analogous to a meteoritic swarm could be developed by this process. If the hypo- thetical explosion could be supposed to be sufficiently violent to project the constituent matter beyond the control of the system, the di.spersed parts might become truly meteoritic, but their courses would be indefinitely divergent, and there would be no assignable agency for their reassemblage. The constituents would pursue individual courses and be subject to sporadic capture essentially as in the case previously considered. Regarding the possibilities of dispersion by collision, it seemed necessary to suppose that the heat developed would be so great as to convert the main mass into a gaseous state. If the collision were 200 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. a center-to-center encounter, a radial dispersion of matter trans- verse to the line of collision would probably follow, returning from which the material would again collide and, after a series of oscil- lations, would gradually settle down into a pulsating gaseous mass.* Here again the system would become gaseous at the outset, and probably develop nothing of the typical meteoritic kind, except possibly such sporadic elements as might be projected beyond the control of the system. If the collision were eccentric, a rotatory motion would doubtless be superposed upon the radial motion, and the case would fall under either the gaseous or the orbital system or under a combination of the two. In the line of my own suggestion f that stellar bodies passing close by one another, but not colliding, may suffer disruption through their differential attractions on one another, aided by internal elasticity, on the principles developed by Roche, Maxwell, and others, I have been unable to find anj^ plausible grounds for postulating a conversion into a meteoritic nebula of the collisional type. In the case of such a disruption, the scattered constituents must apparently be given a rotatory movement in a common direction and in the orbital plane of the two bodies initiating it. The dj'namics of the system are, therefore, from the outset, definitely of a rotatory or revolutionar5^kind, and the case falls under the orbital or planetesimal system rather than under the meteoritic system. It appears, therefore, that neither explosion, nor collision, nor tidal disruption is likely to give rise to a distinctively meteoritic swarm of the kind defined, and I have been unable to discover any other source that can be assigned on definite grounds with a work- able probability. Individual meteorites and rotatory and revolu- tionary assemblages of dispersed elements, as well as true gaseous nebulae, may be supposed to arise from the catastrophes named, but apparently these catastrophes are not appropriate agencies for pro- ducing fragmental swarms of the distinctively meteoritic type. I have made some study of meteorites to see if their characters have any decisive bearings on the mode of their origin. Among the distinctive and significant characters of meteorites are their fragmentary forms, their brecciated structures in part, their occasional slickensided surfaces, their veins, the glassy nature of a *A case of this kind is described by Kelvin, Popular Lectures and Addresses, I, p. 413. t On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of Me- teorites, Comets, and Nebulrp. A.strophvs. Jour., Vol. XIV, 1900. pp. 17-40. ■FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 20I part of their material, the amorphous nature of another part, and the crystalline nature of still a third and larger part, the variations in the coarseness of the crystallization, the extraordinarily large crystals of the nickel-iron, the inclusion of non-metallic crystals and nodules in the nickel-iron crystals, the scattered condition of iron crystals among silicate crystals in many cases (sporadosiderites), the presence of peculiar spheroidal aggregations (chondri), the fragmental nature of these in many instances, the absence of water and hydrates, the absence of free oxygen, the large proportions of the nickel-iron and the magnesia, the absence of a group of minerals common in terrestrial igneous rocks, viz, quartz, orthoclase, the acid plagioclases, the micas, the amphiboles, leucite, and nephelite, the presence of certain unstable chlorides, sulphides, and phosphides unknown in the earth, and the presence of volatile and combustible hydrocarbons.* These make up a remarkable group of characters, whose origin can spring only from an equally peculiar combination of conditions. While the fragmental condition of many meteorites on reaching the earth is due to fracturing in their passage through the air, there are indications in many cases that they already had a fragmental form when they entered the atmosphere. This implies that they are portions of larger bodies, and that they were not aggregated, as such, in free space. At least this appears true in the case of most of those more massive ones that reach the surface of the earth. This of itself does not exclude the view that meteorological aggregates may take place in free space, and that these may have entered into the make-up of the larger body from which the meteorites were derived. It, however, bears on the question whether meteorites, as a rule, were organized as such by the gathering together of gaseous matter or .scattered particles in open space. Less equivocal evidence may be found in the fragmental structure of many of the stony meteorites. Among the broken elements are fragments of chondri. As the chondri are aggregations peculiar to meteorites, their fragmentation implies disruption and reassemblage in the parent body, or at least in an antecedent condition. Interest and point are added by the occurrence of larger chondri inclosing fragments of smaller ones. A very singular case of breccia is presented by the Mount Joy meteorite, which is an aggregate of iron * An excellent sketch of the characteristics of meteorites is given by Dr. O. C. Farrington, Jour. CtCoL, VoL IV, 1901, pp. 51, 174, 392. 202 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. fragments. These various evidences of fragmentation imply a previous history affected by successive conditions of accretion and fracturing. The pressure of slickensided surfaces impHes a parent body which was subjected to varying stresses, resulting first in fracture and afterward in the rubbing of the fissure walls upon one another. The existence of veins also implies fracture attended by subsequent filling. The general prevalence, but partial absence, of crystallization and the kinds of crystallization imply varied thermal conditions in the parent body. The amorphous condition implies the absence of fusion and of the conditions of cr^-stallization. The glassy structure equally implies a molten state followed by quick cooling, while the various grades of crystallization imply high temperatures variously sustained. The extremely large crystals suggest protracted high temperature, with conditions favorable for a highly systematic rearrangement of the material. At the same time the frequent cases in which the metallic iron is scattered through the silicate material seem to imply the absence of a completely fluid state, for in that case segregation of the heavy metallic material toward the center of the bod}' should take place. The same is perhaps indicated by the frequent presence of nodules of sulphides and phosphides within the masses of iron. These conditions seem best explained by a prolonged high tempera- ture acting on a mass of mixed material and furnishing conditions suitable for slow aggregation and crystalline rearrangement without complete fluidity being reached. It is hard to believe that these coarse crystallizations could have been formed in small masses of matter projected into space in the molten condition, and the view that meteorites are formed directly from lavas shot into space by volcanic or other explosive action, as from a sun, a planet, or the moon, is unsatisfactor}- in this particular. Equally adverse to this view is the extraordinary fact that certain classes of meteorites are formed chiefly of hydrocarbons which are volatile at moderately high temperatures and are readily combus- tible. These hydrocarbons seem prohibitive of high temperatures at all stages of their history, and it is a marvel that they should survive the transit through the atmosphere ; but this is probably due to the fact that they were excessively cold when they entered it and during the brief time of their transit were only superficially con- sumed, while their interiors remained cold, as the interiors of me- teorites are not infrequently found to be immediately after their fall. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY, 203 Igneous processes on the earth give rise to magmatic differentia- tion resulting in a familiar series of minerals which make up large portions of the crystalline rocks of the earth's surface ; so also weathering and solution remove more of the basic than of the acidic constituents of crystalline rock, and when the residue is metamor- phosed a similar series of minerals arises. Among these are quartz, orthoclase, the acid plagioclases, the micas, and the amphiboles — a group absent from the meteorites. This absence suggests that in the parent body magmatic differentiation of this kind and selective weathering did not take place. This, however, does not necjessarily exclude volcanic action, nor non-hydrous weathering, but merely the dominant phases of weathering and magmatic differentiation that prevail in the earth and probably in similar bodies having atmospheres and hydrospheres. The absence of water, of hydrates, and of free oxygen adds its testimony against the derivation of the meteorites from the crusts of all bodies like the earth. The high velocities and the diverse directions of the meteoritic flights relative to the earth forbid assigning their origin, in general, to volcanic action in the moon or in any of the planets. Sufficient velocity might be given by a solar explosion, but the directions would be radial and not promiscuous. Explosive action from the members of the solar system may have made an occasional meteor- oidal contribution, but scarcely more than that. Taken altogether, the combination of characteristics presented by meteorites seems to fail of satisfactory explanation in any hypothesis of their direct derivation from a sun or star, or from a planet sur- rounded by a hydrosphere or an oxygen-bearing atmosphere, or from any planetary body affected by mineralogic differentiations of the terrestrial type. No more do they seem to find satisfactory explanation in simple accretion in free space. It remained to inquire whether small atmosphereless bodies like the asteroids and the satellites afford a more probable source. Fol- lowing the doctrine of Stoney, small celestial bodies are believed to be devoid of atmospheres and hydrospheres because their gravity is too low to overmatch the molecular velocities of the atmospheric gases and the vapor of water. This interpretation carries the corol- lary that they never have had permanent atmospheres and hydro- spheres. They thus meet the criterion imposed by the absence of oxygen and water. If built up by accretion, they should contain the requisite variety of material, and if formed in some other way 204 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. the)^ may have had it. In their different parts they may present the required structural characteristics. I see no reason to doubt that the asteroids and sateUites have been subjected to deformations attended by fractures, brecciation, veins, sHckensides, and similar dynamic phenomena. Eruptive and explosive action as well as the impact of falling bodies from the exterior may have contributed various forms of fragmental and amorphous material. The absence of a protecting atmosphere subjects their surfaces to the full striking force of falling bodies, and also the disrupting effects of extreme changes^ of temperature. On the exterior, amorphous masses, as well as glassy and cryptocrystalline rock, may not improbably be formed, while at greater depths the varying conditions of pressure and temperature requisite for the more complete and coarser crys- tallizations may probably be present. The hydrocarbons may be assigned to inorganic action within the asteroidal body, the material being derived from the hydrogen and carbon gases so abundantly occluded in meteorites and crystalline rocks, the requisite tempera- tures and pressures being supplied by the internal compression of the body. In these small bodies, then, it is perhaps possible to find that extraordinary combination of conditions which the nature of the meteorites implies. It remains to postulate a means of disruption and dispersion by which the disrupted fragments shall be given the erratic courses and the high velocities which meteorites possess, while at the same time the structural features, sometimes rather perishable, shall escape destruction by liquefaction or extreme pulverization. Any supposed explosion from an internal .source is unsatisfactory, because it is difficult to assign a probable and sufficient cause for an explosion capable of imparting a velocity of several miles per second, which would probably be required to disperse the fragments beyond the control of the system to which the bod}' belonged, and because if such sufl&cient explosion were realized, it must apparently wreck many of the peculiar meteoritic structures. Collision with some other body at a high velocity would be suflS- cient to disrupt the body and drive its fragments away with the requisite velocity, but the imminent danger of liquefaction by the inevitable heat of the impact or of extreme pulverization of the fragile material rai-ses doubt as to the adaptability of collision to give origin to the hydrocarbon and some of the stony meteorites of large .size, while it might well give rise to minute meteorites. The FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 205 relative rarity of collision also suggests that it should be assigned a secondary place. It has been suggested * recently that disruption by differential attraction might satisfy the requirements of the case, though there is perhaps some ground for doubt as to its adequate frequency. According to principles established by Roche, Maxwell, and others, a small bod}- passing within a certain distance (the Roche limit) of a larger dense body will be torn into fragments by differential attrac- tion. The size of this sphere of disruption depends on the densities, cohesion, internal elasticities, and other factors of the two bodies. For incompressible fluids of the same density Roche gives the limit of disruption as 2.44 times the radius of the large body. In most such bodies internal elasticity probably exceeds cohesion, and the sphere of disruption would be larger than this. The moon would probably expand with some violence if its gravity were suddenly removed by differential attraction. In any case fragmentation in this way would be several times more probable than an actual collision. Furthermore, the fragmentation in this case is not minute nor violent, and this fits the meteoritic requirements. Relative to their erratic courses, it may be noted that a small body passing near a much larger body is liable to be thrown from its previous orbit into quite a new one. As is well known, this has apparently happened to several comets through the influence of the planet Jupiter. As shown by H. A. Newton, if the orbit of the small body is such that it is caused to pass close in the rear of the large body, say the planet Jupiter, its course will be diverted into a larger orbit. If a small body were to pass in this way sujEciently near to Jupiter, it would be thrown entirely out of the solar system, and its path thence would probably be as unrelated to any stellar system as that of an average meteorite. In these two sets of principles there is a combination peculiarly fitted "for the results required, for by their joint action a small body passing hear a large body is liable to be disrupted into fragments, and these at the same time to be thrown into erratic courses, which may carry them entirely outside the system to which they belonged and give them independent courses in stellar space. It is obvious that fragmentation and dispersal by the differential attraction of very close approach escapes the adverse contingencies of liquefaction and pulverization incident to explosion or collision. * On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of Meteorites, Comets, and Nebulae. Jour. Geol., Vol. IX, 1901, p. 369. 2o6 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHIxNGTON. If the question be pushed a step farther, to inquire how small bodies hke the asteroids may be rendered specially subject to the requisite conjunctions, th^ answer may be found in the approach of suns to one another, attended by such secondaries. For example, if the solar system were to pass even within five or six billion miles of a similar system, the orbits of the secondaries would be very greatly perturbed and an intricate and prolonged series of changes would ensue. These are too complicated to be followed by compu- tation, but there are grounds for believing that they might involve, sooner or later, through their disturbed courses, the close approach of some of the smaller bodies to some of the larger. These smaller bodies in the solar system are numbered by hundreds, and similar numbers may be suspected to belong to other systems, and this largeness of number adds to the probabilities of .some close approaches during a condition of general disturbance. The solar system is probably not the most favorable selection for illustrating the contingencies of such disturbance, for it is a simple isolated system, with a single overpowering center that convoys its attendants by a scarcely disputed control. From its symmetry, it is to be inferred that it has swept through space undisturbed throughout the period of its existing organization. But there are many binary, triple, multiple, and clustered systems of suns which apparentl}' divide the control of a common field, and this divided control may reasonabl}- be supposed to involve approaches of the chief bodies of sufficient nearness to one another to perturb seriously their outlying secondaries and introduce disturbances ultimately in- volving disruptive approaches. The nebulous matter associated with some of these perhaps implies something of this kind. The hypothesis of disruption by differential attraction may be pushed one step farther by postulating that the disrupted group of fragments may in its earlier history constitute a comet, since it is the general behef of astronomers that the comet's head is composed of a cluster of small bodies. The peculiar emanations which arise from a comet may perhaps as plausibly be referred to the occluded vapors and the radio-active substances of a shattered asteroid as to any other recognizable source. The recent discoveries of the prevalence of radio-activity and allied phenomena render the cometic emanations less strange and exceptional than they once seemed. The fragments of an asteroid or other small body disrupted in this manner would, it is believed, be given a rotatory movement by the differential attraction that produced them, and hence the result- FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 207 ing cluster of fragments should revolve about their common center of gravity in a somewhat definite plane, but at the same time in more or less irregulai and inharmonious paths, as the result of the incidents of disruption, and these doubtless render them subject to mutual disturbance and frictional and glancing collisions. It is now accepted as highly probable that comets, particularly those that have short orbits and frequently return to the vicinity of the sun, are gradually dispersed by the latter' s differential attraction. The mutual gravity of the cometic fragments being very small, the differential gravity of the sun in its own neighborhood becomes superior to it, and the members of the cometary cluster are drawn apart, and thenceforth revolve about the sun in their own individual orbits, irrespective of the other members. In other words, the cluster of fragments that is supposed to constitute the comet's head passes into the planctesimal state by dispersion. In this we seem to have an actual instance of that tendency of a swarm to pass into a planetesimal condition to which allusion has heretofore been made. These planetesimals constitute one variety of meteoroidal bodies in the broader sense of the term meteoroidal, and it is to these that the brilliant August and September meteoric showers are assigned. It has not been quite demonstrated that they are identical with the iron and stony meteorites above described, for they do not generally reach the earth, and it is not positively known that they have done so in any case, but their essential identity is extremely probable. In the fact that they have come to have individual orbits about the sun, and that these orbits are parallel to one another, and that their velocities a;re of the same order, they do not represent the typical meteoritic condition as heretofore defined. They illustrate rather the planetesimal mode of organization. The foregoing hypothesis of the origin of meteorites makes them but an incidental result of stellar and planetary action. If this be -correct, their genesis is wholly a secondary matter, and furnishes no ground for regarding meteorites as the parent material of great nebulae or of stellar systems. The quantity of matter dispersed in this way is, by the terms of the hypothesis, limited to an extremely small part of the total mass of the systems from which it is derived. This scattered matter is presumed to be picked up individually by all the larger bodies, as is being done daily by the earth, and the main- tenance of the supply only requires the disruption of .small bodies to an extent equal to the trivial masses gathered in by the existing suns 15 208 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. and planets. The exceedingly small amount of meteoritic material picked up by the earth seems to be consistent with this interpretation. In conclusion, it may be remarked that, so far as my studies have gone, the meteoritic condition seems most probably to be an inci- dental result of cosmic mechanics of trivial importance, and to be a source of merely incidental accretion to existing bodies. Meteoritic aggregation of the type defined does not seem to represent a great generative method whereby stellar systems are evolved. On the contrary, the meteoritic condition seems to be inherently moribund, passing into the gaseous state on the one hand, or into the planet - esimal on the other, or, in the absence of assemblage, losing its constituents to existing suns and planets by capture one by one. A much larger portion of my study during the past year has been devoted to a development of the planetesimal hypothesis into greater precision and detail, to the applying of such tests as I could devise, and to the working out of its concrete relations to the man}' geolog- ical problems whose solution is vitally dependent on the mode of the earth's origin. From the geological point of view the ultimate test of this hypothesis and of all other hypotheses of the earth's origin lies in their working qualities. As a complete statement of the planet- esimal hypothesis has not yet appeared in print, it will doubtless be best that I should outline with some detail the form the hypothesis has assumed as the result of the work upon it, particularly as this will best indicate the work that has been done. Under the typical form of the planetesimal hypothesis it is assumed that the parent nebula of the solar system consisted of innumerable small bodies, planetesimals, revolving about a central gaseous mass, somewhat as do the planets to-day. The hypothesis, therefore, postu- lates no fundamental change in the sj^stem of dynamics after the nebula was once formed, but only an as.semblage of the scattered material. The state of dispersion of the material at the outset and throughout, as now, was maintained by orbital revolutiofi, or, more closely speaking, by the tangential component of the energy of rev- olution. The planetesimal hypothesis by no means excludes gases from playing a part in the parent nebula or in its evolution, any more than it denies their presence in the sun or the atmosphere to-day, but it assigns to gaseous action a subordinate place in the evolution of the planetary system after the planetesimal condition had become established. An inquiry into the possible modes by which the planetesimal FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 20g condition might arise revealed several possible methods. Such con- dition might arise from a nebula that was originally gaseous. If, for example, it be supposed that the parent nebula was a gaseous spheroid, and that it detached material from its equatorial belt mole- cule by molecule, rather than by rings, as postulated by Laplace, these molecules would probably become planetesimals instead of members of a true gaseous body. It is not the thought that these molecules would be thrown off directly into planetesimal orbits, be- cause their initial paths would probably be ellipses that would bring them back to the point of departure ; but that, by certain classes of collisions while in these elliptical orbits, they would be diverted into orbits that would not bring them again into collision with the parent spheroid. There is reason to believe that this method would really be almost the only systematic one by which a gaseous spheroid of the Laplacian type would detach material from its equatorial belt. But if this be not true, and if an earth-moon gaseous ring were formed, as assumed in the Laplacian hypothesis, computation shows that its attractive power at any one point on its surface would be very low. If the present earth were converted into a solid ring, occupying its present orbit, it would have a diameter of about 25 miles with its present average density. Computation is scarcely necessary to show that the gravity of this ring at any point on its surface would be very feeble, and it is obvious that this gravity must be greater than the gravity on the surface of the same matter if it were dispersed by intense heat into the form of a gaseous ring. The application of the kinetic theory of gases to such a ring, under the postulated temperature, forces the conviction that the molecules would have been so driven apart by mutual collision and rebound that they would have become essentially independent of one another, each revolving in its individual orbit, with only rare and incidental collisions. In other words, they would have become planetesimals controlled by the central mass and not a gaseous aggregate con- trolled by its own gravity. They would, therefore, not have been concentrated by direct attraction on the principles controlling a cooling gaseous body, but would have been subject to accretion one by one in the modes presently to be described. Under certain circumstances meteorites might be assembled in such a way that they would come to revolve in concentric orbits about their common center of gravity, as previously indicated, and thus assume a quasi-planetesimal condition in contradistinction to that of a quasi-gaseous swarm of meteorites, in which each is habitually 2IO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. drawn toward the center, collides, and rebounds after the fashion of gaseous molecules, as conceived by Lockyer and Darwin. The meteoroids that are formed by the dispersion of a comet, such as constitute the belts that give rise to the August and November me- teoritic showers, are probably in the planetesimal rather than the collision- rebound condition, and are becoming more and more scattered and individuall}' independent as time goes on. As the basis for developing the typical form of the planetesimal hypothesis, I have assumed that the parent nebula had a plan- etesimal organization from the outset. The conception is a rather radical departure from the gaseous conception of the familiar neb- ular hypothesis, and from the meteoritic conception of L,ockyer and Darwin, so far as fundamental dynamics and mode of evolution are concerned. To develop the hypothesis as definitely and concretely as possible, I have further chosen a special case from among those that might possibly arise, viz, the case in which the nebula is sup- posed to have arisen from the dispersion of a sun as a result of close approach to another large body. The case does not involve the origin of a star nor even the primary origin of the solar system, but rather its rejuvenation and the origin of a new family of planets. The general planetesimal doctrine does not stand or fall with the merits or demerits of this special phase of it, but to be of much real service in stimulating and guiding investigation, a hypothesis must be carried out into working detail so that it may be tested by its concrete and specific application to the phenomena involved, and hence the reason for developing a specific sub-hypothesis. This particular sub-hypothesis was selected for first development ( i ) be- cause it postulates as simple an event as it seems possible to assign as the source of so great results, (2) because that event seems very likely to have happened, (3) because the form of the nebula sup- posed to arise in this way is the most common form known, the spiral, and (4) because spectroscopic observ^ations seem at present to support the constitution assigned this class of nebulse, although it must be noted that spectroscopic observations have not reached such a stage of development as to demonstrate the motions of the nebular constituents. In future spectroscopic determinations Hes one of the crucial tests which the hypothesis must yet undergo, for there is little doubt that spectroscopic work will in time reach such a degree of refinement as to demonstrate the motions of the con- stituents of the spiral nebulse. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 211 Present spectroscopic data relative to the constitution of the nebulae, considered in relation to the question in hand, reveal two general classes of nebulae, the one characterized by bright spectral lines, the other by a continuous spectrum. The first are usually said to be gaseous, but this designation is not sufficiently accurate for our present purpose. The bright lines of the spectrum can only be affirmed to indicate that the matter of these nebulae is in a free-molecular condition. They do not cer- tainl}' indicate whether (i) the molecules are in the coUisional rela- tions of gaseous molecules or (2) are scattered wideh', like meteor- ites, so that collisions are rare and incidental, or (3) are moving on radiant or on parallel lines, or (4) are pursuing concentric orbits, and are thus planetesimal in dxmamic character. For the purposes of this study, where dynamic distinctions are important, these neb- ulae may be designated, with due reserve, simph' as free-molecular nebulce. They often have a greenish cast from the predominance of green lines in their spectra, and are conveniently styled green nebulae. The bright spectral lines indicate the dominance of hydro- gen, helium, and an otherwise unknown element or elements, pro- visionally called nebulium. There are occasionally a few other non-metallic elements, but metals have not been detected. Their con- stitution, as now determined, does not, therefore, fit them for the parentage of our earth, in which metals abound and in which hy- drogen and helium are subordinate elements, while nebulium is unknown. The possibilities of transmutation into suitable elements can not, to be sure, be safely denied in these days of revolutionary discoveries, but, on the other hand, can not very safely be made a working basis. The class includes the " planetar}'," the " stellar," the " ring," and most of the irregular nebulae. Almost identical with the spectra of these nebulae are the spectra developed in an earlj^ phase of the declining stages of the new stars that occasionally flash forth with sudden brilliancy and soon die away to obscurity or extinction, continuous spectra sometimes marking the later stages. While the origin of these "Novcs'' is unknown, the conjecture that they are due to collision or to explo- sion has been entertained, and this conception has also been extended to the free-molecular class of nebulae. It is a further suggestive fact that these early spectra of the new stars and the spectra of green nebulae are closely similar to the spectra of the " helium stars ' ' and the ' ' hydrogen stars, ' ' which astronomers usually place in the first or "earliest" group in evolutionary classifications of 212 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. the Stars. There is thus much of ground, therefore, for linking together in genetic studies these stars, the Novce and the hehum- hydrogen-nebulium nebulae and for looking upon them provision- ally as primitive states. If our quest were the genesis of stars, these would seem to point the way, so far as anything does at present ; but our quest is the genesis of the so\Q.r family of planets, in one of which our study centers, and the genesis of our earth is not neces- sarily and immediately connected with the genesis of stars. Nebu- lous bodies composed of helium, hydrogen, and the hypothetical nebulium might, for aught we dare now affirm, remotely evolve into material of the complex terrestrial type ; but the speculation is rather too bold for prudent use as a basal factor in a conservative hypothesis. The forms of the helium-hydrogeu-nebulium nebulae are scarcely more promising for planetary evolution when their dynamical prop- erties are considered. While observation has as j^et determined almost nothing as to their internal movements, their forms do not encourage the belief that they would under known laws evolve into a system characterized by the peculiar distribution of mass and momentum which the solar system presents. For the present, therefore, these nebulae have been passed by in the search for the immediate genesis of the earth. The other class of nebulae give continuous spectra and are con- veniently styled white nebulae. The continuous spectrum is inter- preted to mean that their chief luminous material is in a liquid or solid state, or, perhaps better, that the molecules are in an aggregated state, in distinction from the free state of the previous class. As the liquid condition is limited to a rather narrow range of temperature, and as this range is very different for different material, it is improb- able that any large portion of a nebula is in this state, and the whole may be conveniently treated as though it were formed of solid mat- ter, but matter in a finely divided condition. This last qualification seems necessary, for the volume of the.se nebulae is often very great. and yet they appear to intercept but little light and give no signs of great attractive power. The prevailing form of these nebulae is the spiral, as determined by the late Professor Keeler, and this form particularly characterizes the smaller nebulae recently brought to knowledge by improved in- struments and manipulative skill. These newly discovered nebulae are estimated to number at least ten times the whole number previ- FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 213 ously known. From the superior number of spiral nebulae it is a safe inference that their peculiar forms represent some prevalent process in celestial dynamics. This is in itself a reason why re- search should turn to them, by preference, for the origin of the present solar system.* Nothing is yet positively known of the motions of the parts of these spirals, for time enough has not yet elapsed since they were first sharply photographed to permit the requisite comparisons. Infer- ences from their remarkable forms are the only present resource. To me these peculiar forms seem to imply that the spirals sprang from a combined outzvard and rotatory ^novement. The outward move- ment may no longer exist, as it may have been already checked by the gravity of the central mass, and the rotatory motion be the dom- inant one at present, but their forms seem still to bear the impress of an outward movement. If the outward movement has ceased, or when it ceases, the rotatory movement must tend to wrap the spiral up more and more closely and symmetrically, because the revolutions of the inner parts must be more rapid than those of the outer parts. By this it is not meant that the matter of the nebulae is necessarily drawn nearer the center of the system, but merely that the arms are stretched and more closely coiled. The forms that seem to be the more mature appear to betray this, for their inner parts are coiled more closely and symmetrically than their outer parts. In the * The profoundly lamented death of Professor Keeler, just as he was beginning to reap the rich fruits of his skill and patience in nebular investigations, gives historical value to his latest statement of results, published about two months before his death. " I. Many thousands of unrecorded nebulae exist in the sky. A conservative estimate places the number within reach of the Crossley reflector at about 120,000. The number of nebulse in our catalogues is but a small fraction of this. ' ' 2. These nebulae exhibit all gradations of apparent size from the great nebula in Andrcnneda down to an object which is hardly distinguishable from a faint star disk. " 3. Most of these nebulae have a spiral structure. * * * " While I must leave to others an estimate of the importance of these conclu- sions, it seems to me that they have a very direct bearing on many, if not all, questions concerning the cosmogony. If, for example, the spiral is the form normally assumed b}^ a contracting nebulous mass, the idea at once suggests itself that the solar sj'stem has been evolved from a spiral nebula, while the pho- tographs show that the spiral nebula is not, as a rule, characterized by the sim- plicity attributed to the contracting mass in the nebular hypothesis. This is a question which has already been taken up by Professor Chamberlin and Mr. Moulton of the University of Chicago. ' ' Astrophys. Jour. , June, 1900, pp. 347-348. 214 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. remarkable nebula in Canes Venatici there are curved streamers, like the tails of comets, stretching outward from some of the knots in the arms. If these are indeed streamers driven outward from the knots and curved by motion, as in the case of comets' tails, they testify very definitely to a rotatory movement. A notable and seemingly very significant feature of these nebulae is the presence of hvo domiyiayit arvis that arise from diametrically opposite sides of the nucleus and curve concentrically away. No single-arm spiral of the watchspring type has been found, so far as I am aware. There are often more than two arms in the outer part, and there is much irregularly dispersed matter, but even in the more scattered forms the dominance of two arms is discernible. A second feature of note is the presence of numerous nebulous hiots or partial concentrations on the arms and more or less outside them. So, also, the more diffuse nebulous matter is unequally dis- tributed, and in some of the forms, regarded as youngest, dark spots and lines emphasize the irregularity. All these features go to show that these forms are controlled, not by the support of part on part, as in a continuous body or in a mass of gas or even in a definite swarm of quasi-gaseous meteorites, but by some system of combined kinetic energy and gravity which ^^r- mits indepejidence of parts. It is, therefore, conceived that the in- numerable solid or liquid particles which the continuous spectrum implies revolve about the common center of gravity as though they were planetoidal bodies. If this were certainly known to be the case, these might well be called planctesimal nebulce. It is clear from the tenuity of these nebulae, as seen from the side of the spiral, that they are disk-like, and this is directly shown to be so when they are seen obliquel3\ In their disk-like shape, these nebula conform to the mode of distribution of matter in the solar system. Within the area of their disks also, the distribution is irregular, as it is in the solar system — a fact too much overlooked by reason of our predilection for symmetry, under the influence of the symmetrical Laplacian conception. All of the more familiar spiral nebulae have dimensions that vastly transcend those of the solar system, and they can not be taken as precise examples of the solar evolution. Because of these vast dimensions and of the probable feebleness of control of the central mass, which often appears to be itself quite tenuous, a rapid motion can not well be assigned to the arms. Seen from the immense FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 215 distances at which these nebulae seem to be placed — no parallax hav- ing been as yet detected — changes of position must necessarily be slow in revealing themselves to observation. It is to be hoped, however, that the present rapid progress in the perfection of instru- ments and of skill will soon bring within the reach of successful study some of the smaller spiral nebulae that represent the solar system more nearly in mass and proportions. With this much of knowledge and of limitation of knowledge rela- tive to existing nebulae, the construction of a working hypothesis required not a little resort to supplementary deductive and hypo- thetical considerations. The inference that a spiral nebula is formed by a combined outward and rotatory movement implies a preexist- ing body that embraced the whole mass. In harmony with this, an ancestral solar system has been postulated — a system perhaps in no very essential respect different from the present one. My hypothesis does not, therefore, concern itself with the primary origin of the sun or of the stars, or w^ith the ulterior questions of cosmic evolution. It confines itself to a supposed episode of the sun's history in which the present family of planets had its origin, and in the initiation of which a possible previous family may have been dispersed, but no affirmation is made relative to this. With some partiality, perhaps, this episode may be regarded as geologic, since it specially concerns the birth of the planet of which alone we have intimate knowledge. To this conception of an ancestral sun with an undefined ante- cedent history as a star, question will arise at once as to a sufii- ciency of energy for the sun's maintenance through such a prolonged history. It has been strongly urged during the past half-century by very eminent physicists that the resources of energy assignable for the maintenance of the sun's heat and light could, at best, be barely sufl&cient for the geological and biological demands of the earth's known history, even when these are most conservatively estimated; how much less then can the)' be sufficient for an antecedent history of unknown duration. This objection is based on the assumption that the sun's heat and light are derived almost zuholly from self- compression, as urged by Helmholtz. This self-compression has usually been computed on the basis of certain limiting assumptions, the validity of which is open to question. That self-compression is a potent source of heat is not doubted, but the Helmholtzian theory takes no account of sub-molecular and sub-atomatic sources of energy. The transcendent potency of these 2l6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. sources of energy has been some time suspected,* and is now being revealed by refined physical research. The extraordinary energies displayed by radio-active substances are doubtless but an initial demonstration of immeasurable energies resident in other forms of matter and in the constitution of the sidereal system and competent for its maintenance for unassignable periods. It does not appear, therefore, in the light of recent revelations in ph5'sics or recent dis- coveries in the constitution of the stars and the stellar systems, that there is any suflScient reason for setting narow limits to the life of the sun. It seems more in accord with recent advances in knowl- edge to place the compressional theory of the sun's heat in the cate- gory of the earlier chemical and meteoritic theories as true and contributory, but as only partial and inadequate. There seem to be no sufficient grounds, therefore, for hesitating to postulate an ancestral solar system, the center of which was the parent of the present sun. This involves the further quite reason- able assumption that the sidereal system has had a very prolonged history, and that the ancestral sun played its own part in it as the solar sj-stem does now. * I wrote in 1899, before experimental demonstration had been reached : " Without questioning its correctness, is it safe to assume that the Helmholtzian hypothesis of the heat of the sun is a complete theory ? Is present knowledge relative to the behavior of matter under such extraordinary conditions as obtain in the interior of the sun sufficiently exhaustive to warrant the assertion that no unrecognized sources of heat reside there ? What the internal constitution of the atoms may be is 3'et an open question. It is not improbable that they are complex organizations and the seats of enormous energies. Certainly no careful chemist would affirm either that the atoms are really elementary, or that there may not be locked up in them energies of the first order of magni- tude. No cautious chemist would probably venture to assert that the compo- nent atomecules, to use a convenient phrase, may not have energies of rotation, revolution, position, and be otherwise comparable in kind and proportion to those of a planetary system. Nor would he probably feel prepared to affirm or deny that the extraordinary conditions which reside in the center of the sun may not set free a portion of this energy. The Helmholtzian theory takes no cog- nizance of latent and occluded energies of an atomic or ultra-atomic nature. A ton of ice and a ton of water at a like distance from the center of the system are accounted equivalents, though they differ notably in the total sum of their energies. The familiar latent and chemical energies are, to be sure, negligible quantities compared with the enormous resources that reside in gravitation. But is it quite safe to assume that this is true of the unknown energies wrapped up in the internal constitution of the atoms ? .\re we quite sure we have yet probed the bottom of the sources of energy and are able to measure even roughly its sum total ? ' ' (On Lord Kelvin's Address on the Age of the Earth as an Abode Fitted for Life, Science, vol. IX, June 30, and vol. X, July 7, 1899.) FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 217 With IOC, 000, 000 or more known suns and an unknown number of dark bodies moving in various directions with various velocities, the possibility of collision is well recognized ; but, owing to the vastness of the intervening spaces, the contingencies of collision for an individual sun are small. However, no appeal is here made to collisions as a source of the parent nebula of the solar system, but only to an approach of the ancestral sun to another large body, and this approach is not assumed to have been very close. This rather distant approach is a contingencj- that may fairly be assumed as likely to have been realized in fact. I have elsewhere discussed the general effects of the close approach of celestial bodies* to one an- other, but the particular case of the supposed ancestral sun requires special consideration. Our present sun shoots out protuberances to heights of many thousands of miles, at velocities ranging up to 300 miles per second and more. If it were not for the retarding influence of the im- mense solar atmosphere, some of these outshoots would doubtless project portions of themselves to the outer limits of the present sys- tem, and perhaps in some cases quite beyond it, for the observed velocities sometimes closely approach the controlling limit of the sun's gravity, if they do not actually reach it. The expansive potency of this prodigious elasticity is held in restraint by the equally prodigious power of the sun's gravity. If with these potent forces thus nearly balanced the sun closely approaches another sun or body of like magnitude — suppose one several times the mass of the sun, since it is regarded as a small star — the gravity which re- strains this enormous elastic power will be relieved along the line of mutual attraction, on the principle made familiar in the tides. At the same time the pressure transverse to this line of relief is in- creased. Such localized relief and intensification of pressure must, it is believed, result in protuberances of exceptional mass and high velocity. According to the well-known tidal principle, these ex- ceptional protuberances would rise from opposite sides, and herein lies the assigned explanation of the prevalence of two diametrically opposite arms in the spiral nebulae. Nothing remotely approaching a general dispersion of the ances- tral sun seems to be required . The present planets and their satellites * On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of Me- teorites, Comets, and Nebulae. Astrophys. Jour., vol. XIV, No. i, July, 1901, pp. 17-40; Jour. Geol., vol. IX, No. 5, July-Aug., 1901, pp. 369-393. 2l8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. altogether amount to about one seven-hundredth part of the mass of the S5'stem. Simply to supply the required planetary matter, the protuberances need include but this small fraction of the ancestral sun. However, some considerable part of the projected matter must probably have been gathered back into the sun, and some part ma3^ possibl}' have been projected beyond the control of the system. Making allowances for both the.se factors, the proportion of the sun's mass necessarily involved in the protuberances is still very small. Apparently i or 2 per cent of the sun's mass would amply suffice. The protuberances, by hypothesis, would be thrust out as the sun was swinging about its temporary companion star in a sharp curve, and necessaril}^ at a prodigious velocity. It is inferred that the pro- jected protuberances would be differentially affected by the attraction of the companion star, and take different curv^es about it, out of which must spring rotatory motion. This seems logicall}' clear, but the precise paths pursued b}- the parts of the protuberances would apparently vary wideh' with different cases. As each case consti- tutes an involved example of the problem of three bodies, the whole is beyond rigorous mathematical treatment, but special solutions seem to justify the inference that effective rotation would arise. The distal portions of the protuberances would obviously be formed from the superficial portions of the sun, while the later portions of the ejections forming the proximal parts of the arms would doubtless come mainly from lower depths, and hence probably contain more molecules of high specific gravity. In this seems to lie a better basis for explaining the extraordinar)- lightness of the outer planets and the high specific gravities of the inner ones, than in the separa- tion, from the extreme equatorial surface of a gaseous spheroid, of successive rings whose total mass only equaled one seven-hundredth part of the original nebula. It seems consistent with the conditions of the case to assume that the protuberances would consist of a succes.sion of more or less irreg- ular outbursts, as the ancestral sun in its swift whirl around the controlling star was more and more affected by the latter' s differen- tial attraction ; and hence the protuberances would be directed in somewhat changing courses, and would be pulsatorj^ in character, resulting in rather irregular and somewhat divided arms, and in a knotty distribution of the ejected matter along the arms. These knots must probably be more or less rotatory from inequalities of projection. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 219 It is thus conceived that a spiral nebula, having two dominant arms, opposite one another, each knotty from irregular pulsations, and rotatory, the knots probably also rotatory, and attended by sub- ordinate knots and whirls, together with a general scattering of the larger part of the mass in irregular nebulous form, would arise from the simple event of a disruptive approach. The ejected matter, at the outset, must have been in the free molecular state, since by the terms of the hypothesis it arose from a gaseous body ; but the vast dispersion and the enormous surface exposed to radiation doubtless quickly reduced the more refractory portions to the liquid and solid state, attended by some degree of aggregation into small accretions ; hence the continuous spectrum which this class of nebulae present. The problem of the luminescence of nebulae is confessedly a puz- zling one. There is little ground for assigning general incandes- cence to matter so obviously scattered and tenuous and possessed of such an enormous radiating surface. The assignment of the light to the collision of meteorites, as done by Lockyer, encounters both dynamic and spectroscopic difficulties. The recent discoveries of the luminescent properties of radio-active matter and of its power to awaken luminescence in other matter offers some hope of a solu- tion. The fact that these properties are not necessarily dependent on heat greatly relieves the stress of the problem. Whatever of radio-active material there might be in the matter dispersed into nebulous form would by such dispers'ion be set free for action, and whatever other matter was subject to its excitation would also be set free to receive the excitating influence. The solution of the problem may, however, lie along electrical lines. At present it seems more probable that the luminescence arises from some agency that acts at low temperatures, than that it is dependent on heat, and hence objections to a planetesimal organi- zation on the ground of low temperature do not seem to me to have much force. As previously remarked, the verity of this particular mode of origin of spiral nebulae is not essential to the acceptance of the planetesimal hypothesis. It is merely necessary that two simple assumptions should hold good, viz, (i) that the nebular matter of the spiral be in a finely divided solid or liquid condition, as the continuous spectrum implies, and (2) that the particles of this scattered material revolve in elliptical orbits about the central mass. In attempting to follow the probable evolution of such a spiral 220 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. nebula, three elements stand out conspicuously: (i) The central mass, obviously to become the sun ; (2) the knots on the arms that are assumed to be the nuclei of the future planets and perhaps satellites ; and (3) the diffuse nebulous matter to be added to the nuclei as material of growth. In the particular case of the solar nebula it is assumed ( i ) that the central mass was relatively very great ; (2) that the knots were very irregular in size and placed at irregular distances from the center; and (3) that the nebulous portion was very small relative to the central mass and probably large rela- tive to the knots. It is assumed that the masses of matter in the knots were suffi- ciently large to hold themselves together in spite of the differential attraction of the central mass, otherwise they would soon have been scattered. They seem to have maintained themselves successfully in existing nebulse that appear to have undergone some notable degree of evolution. On the other hand, it is presumed that the mutual attraction of the more tenuous nebular matter was insufficient to aggregate itself directly in the presence of the central attraction, for in the existing nebulae this portion seems to show a progressive tendency to a more general diffusion. The planetesimals of the diffused nebulous portion are assumed to be controlled essentially b}^ the gravitation of the main mass and to revolve in individual orbits about it. The irregularity of the forms of the knots seems to imply that their organization is also planetesimal, though the larger ones may be able to hold gases also. The direction of revolution of these knots is sup- posed to be usually the same as that of the rotation of the nebula as a whole, but subject to local and special influences that might lead to important variations. While the knots of the solar nebula are regarded as the nuclei about which gathered the planetesimals to form the future planets, all such nuclei did not necessarily retain their independence and grow to planets, though no planet probably developed except from such a nucleus. Existing nebulae show clusters of knots and aggregates of irregular form susceptible of development into complex planetary systems, such as the large planets and their families of satellites. The earth-moon system is assigned to a couplet of companion nuclei of quite unequal sizes. Certain studies were made to determine the probable amount of growth of the planets, as this possesses much geological interest. Two considerations bear upon the size of the original nuclei. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 221 1 . There is a certain necessary limitation to the size of tenuous bodies in the presence of more massive bodies. The principle in- volved is one of vital importance in the study of planetary evolu- tion. Within the field of the effective attraction of a dominant body like the sun, or the ancestral nebular center, small bodies exercise differential gravitative control over a limited sphere only, known technically as the " sphere of activity." This sphere for the earth, with its present mass, reaches out about 620,000 miles.* If the earth has grown at all its primitive sphere of control must have been smaller than this. The earth nucleus could, therefore, only have embraced such matter as lay within this limited sphere. If the original knot could be supposed to have extended beyond this limit the outljang portion would have been drawn away by the solar mass into independent planetesimals, and must have been gathered in, if it became a part of the earth at all, by some other means than direct attraction. The moon controls, as against the attraction of the earth at its present distance, a sphere whose radius is about 25,000 miles, and considerably less than 25,000 miles as against the joint attraction of the earth and sun. Its primitive nucleus, if it has grown at all, was confined to smaller dimensions. Attenuated nuclei of indefinite size can not, therefore, be supposed to maintain them- selves permanently in the fields of attraction dominated by larger bodies. Bodies of gas, subject to the dispersive effects of their own molecular velocities, in addition to the competitive attractions of the dominant bodies, have still narrower limits, and, below a certain mass, are inevitably dispersed. In such a system as ours gases must, for the most part, either join themselves to the dominant bodies or be scattered into molecular planetesimals. None of the smaller knots of the solar nebula could probably have been gaseous in any large measure. Gases were probably attached to and oc- cluded in the aggregated or solid planetesimals, and may have been held in a free gaseous state in the interiors of the larger nuclei. The sun is, of course, presumed to have been gaseous throughout the evolution. 2. Quite a definite indication of the size of the nuclei of the planets may perhaps be deduced from the very remarkable fact that Phobos, the inner satellite of Mars, revolves around the planet in less than o7ic-ihirdoi the time of the planet's rotation, and from the analogous fact that the little bodies which make up the inner part of the inner * "The Spheres of Activity of the Planets," by F. R. Moulton, Pop. Astron., No. 66, p. 4. 222 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. ring of Saturn revolve about that planet in a little more than one-half the time of the planet's rotation.* These are exceedingly trouble- some facts from the viewpoint of the Laplacian hypothesis, for under it the contraction of these planets, after they had shed their ' secondaries, should have greatly accelerated their rotations, and these should have become much shorter than the revolutions of the sec- ondaries. Before Moulton's citation of the second case an attempt was made to explain the case of Phobos by a supposed tidal retarda- tion of the planet's rotation, but the Saturnian case appears to render this explanation incompetent. f Under the hypothesis of growth from a nucleus by the addition of planetesimals, the rotations of the planets were dependent largely on the special phases of the impacts of the infalling planetesimals, and no necessary relations between the rotation of a planet and the revo- lution of its satellite are assignable. But if this be neglected, and the rotation-period of the planetary nucleus be assumed to have been originally the same as the revolution-period of the satellite's nucleus, the growth of the mass of the planet must have drawn the satellite nearer to itself and shortened the time of its revolution. If the whole of the periodic difference between Mars and Phobos be due to this cause, the growth of the nucleus of Mars is deducible from it. Under this view the matter of the rings of Saturn may have been satellite nuclei at the outset, and have been drawn within the Roche limit by the growth of Saturn, and then disintegrated by tidal action and distributed into the ring form. All other satellites should, under this view, have been drawn toward their primaries during the growth of the latter, and this may be a not unimportant factor in their evolutionary history. The concurrent bearings of these two considerations are quite in harmony with what might be gathered independently from a com- parison of the apparent amounts of matter in the nebular knots with the amounts in the nebular haze in existing nebulae. It was there- fore assumed in my further study that the nuclei con.stituted only a small portion of the mass of the grown planets. The fraction was probably larger proportionally for the small planets than for the large planets, for the power of growth probably rose with increased mass in geometrical ratio. In the case of the asteroids and satellites the growth may not have been large. * For a discussion of these phenomena, see "An Attempt to Test the Nebular Hypothesis by an Appeal to the Laws of Mechanics," F. R. Moulton, Astrophys. Jour., 1900, p. 109. t See Moulton's discussion, loc. cit., pp 109-110. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 223 In postulating a mode of growth I have departed radically from the older hypotheses and assigned the gathering of the planetesimals into the nuclei to conjunctions in the course of their orbital move- ments— not simply or chiefly to the attraction of the nuclei. The nature of the original motions of the planetesimals is therefore a point of vital importance. I have assumed that the combined outward and rotatory motions to which the formation of the nebula is assigned gave to each individual planetesimal an elliptical orbit about the common center, while their distribution was such as to give a spiral form to the whole. In this I have departed from the common assumption that the arms of the nebulae marked the courses of the individual constituents. If the outward and the tangential impulses had been duly bal- anced, it is believed that circular orbits must have resulted ; but neither theory nor observation make it probable that this was often the case. The inevitable inequalities of the two components should give ellipses varying in eccentricity with every variation in their relations. As, however, both the outward and the rotatorj^ com- ponents sprang from the same source — the gravitative disturbance induced by the approach to a massive star — there is reason to think that they would be measurably subequal, and that the resulting eccentricities, though large, would not be excessive. This view is in accord with the forms of the spiral nebulce. These do not pre- sent spirally symmetrical configurations of the strictly circuloid type, but broadly elliptical ones, with irregular elements. The de- velopment of the present almost circular configuration of the solar system out of such a broadly elliptical, somewhat irregular, spiral configuration involves an evolution in the direction of circularity and symmetry in the course of the aggregation of the scattered matter. How this might have come about I have endeavored to determine. In the initial stages the orbital ellipses of the nuclei and of the innumerable planetesimals were, by reason of their common origin, rudely concentric. They were, to be sure, more or less discordant in form and in attitude from the effects of unequal projection, of differential expansion of the solar matter when set free by projection, and of the collisions of the constituent planetesimals ; but all of this was subordinate to a general concentric arrangement of the ellip- tical paths. Under the laws of celestial mechanics, these paths must have been constantly modified by the different attractions of the different portions of the nebula. The axes of the orbits must 16 224 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. have shifted, the attitudes of their orbital planes must have varied, and their eccentricities must have been modified. It will suffice to consider the shifting of the major axes of the orbits, technically "the motion of the line of apsides," as that is the most vital factor in the process of aggregation. So long as the major axes of the orbits were essentially parallel to one another, the bodies would remain apart and aggregation be prevented ; but when they became shifted differentially the orbits would be liable to touch, and conjunction be possible if the orbital planes were appropriately related to one another. The shifting of the lines of apsides is in constant progress in the present system, and must of necessity take place in any such system, as shown by the investigations in celestial mechanics. The shifting is differential and subject to various perturbations, involving alter- nate movement forward and backward, but the average result is an advance* for all the planets except Venus. At present the line of apsides of quickest revolution is that of Saturn, which completes its circuit in 67,000 years, roundly speaking, while that of Neptune requires 540,000 years, and that of the earth a little more than 100,000 years. t In the course of time the major axis of each orbit is thrown athwart that of its neighbors, and whenever the longer axis of the smaller orbit is equal to the shorter axis of the larger orbit, and the planes of the orbits are properly related, collision is rendered con- tingent. Actual collision is dependent, of course, upon the bodies reaching the crossing of their paths at the same time. The planes of the planetary orbits now lie near to one another and are presumed always to have done so. These planes, though not necessarily the orbits, intersect one another, and the lines of intersection are shift- ing, so that in time all assignable intersections are realized. Under these conditions the mechanics of such a system furnish the requisite contingencies for collisions between the planetesimals and the nuclei if sufficient time be granted. The collisions of isolated planetesimals with one another may be neglected, for it is uncertain whether the planetesimals would re- bound from one another or would unite ; probably the former when they were highly elastic, and the latter when inelastic ; and probably much would also depend on their velocities and their modes of impact; but in am^ case the result would only affect the size and number of the planetesimals. The important consideration is the * Celestial Mechanics, F. R. Moulton, p. 245. t Young's General Astronomy, p. 313. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 225 impact of the isolated planetesimals upon the planetary nuclei. In this case the usual result must apparently be the capture of the planetesimals by the nuclei ; and with each capture the power of further capture would be augmented. When two bodies in concentric elliptical orbits unite, their con- joined mass must move in an orbit that is intermediate between the two previous orbits, and this new orbit, in all cases investigated, is less eccentric than one of the previous orbits, and may be less eccen- tric than both. While a rigorous mathematical demonstration that this is universally true has not been found, it appears to be true for all normal cases falling within the problem in hand; and if so, it follows that the union of an indefini te number of orbits progress- ively reduces the resulting orbit toward circularity. In application there arises the obvious corollary that planets that have grown most have in general lost most of their primitive eccentricity, and those that have grown least most nearly represent the original eccen- tricity. This has a significant application to the planets of the solar system, as will appear later. When the slowness of the motion of the line of apsides and the only partial coincidence of the planes of the orbits at any one time are duly considered, it is evident that the contingencies of collision for the entire number of planetesimals will be spread over a pro- tracted period, and that collisions can succeed one another rapidly only as the immensity of the possible number insures this. Individ- ually, the chances of collisions are remote and infrequent, but as the numbers involved at the outset were prodigious, the impacts upon a given nucleus in a given time may have been numerous. In the nature of the case, the impacts must have declined in frequency after the greater number of planetesimals had been gathered into the nucleus. The rate of accretion is a matter of radical geological importance ; indeed, it is, in some measure, the most critical feature of the whole nebular problem, for the rate of accretion determines whether the average temperature on the surface of the growing body will be high or low. The surface temperature is not determined by the total heat produced by the collisions, but by the heat produced in a given time, which, in turn, is determined by the frequency a?id force of the collisions on a given area. If the succession of collisions on a given square mile was not rapid enough to generate heat beyond the con- current radiation from the square mile, a high average temperature for the whole could not be reached, however great the sum total of 2 26 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON, he^t generated in the course of time. It is to be noted that the heat generated after a soHd nucleus was developed must have been superficial and hence readily radiated awa^-. While the nuclei remained assemblages of small bodies, perhaps gaseous in part in the larger ones, planetesimals from without may have penetrated to the interior and there developed heat not so readily lost. But this state is only assignable to the earl}- stages. A further consideration bearing upon the critical subject of tem- perature is the manner of collision. Since all the planetesimals and planetar}^ nuclei were revolving in the same directio7i about the solar mass, the collisions were all overtakes, and could have been violent only to the extent of their differences of orbital velocity, modified by their mutual attractions. These velocities are of a much lower order than the average velocities of meteoritic collisions. Many of the overtakes would obviously be due to differences of velocity barely sufficient to bring about an overtake. When the relative mildness of impact is considered in connection with the intervals between impacts at a given spot, the conviction can scarcely be avoided that the surface temperature would not necessarily have been high. It seems probable that it would have been moderate throughout most of the period of aggregation, and certainly so in the declining stages of infall. The development of the hypothesis has now reached a point where it can be tested. It happens to be a point where all hj-potheses of this class have been supposed to be fatally at fault. The crucial feature lies in the direction of rotation which would result from the gathering in of matter in this way. At the same time, the bearing of the discussion broadens, for this vital question of direction of rotation attaches to all forms of aggregation of independent bodies moving in orbits about the common center of a system. For example, if the evolution of the solar system be supposed to start with a gaseous spheroid of the Laplacian type, and to proceed in the manner postu- lated by Laplace until the planetar}' rings were formed, and if then the velocities of the molecules resulting from mutual impact carried them beyond the gravitative control of the rings, so that they were scattered and revolved independently around the central mass, the hypothesis of their aggregation would be as much subject to the test of rotation as the special hypothesis now under consideration. So, too, if iiistead of forming definite rings, the molecules were separated from the supposed gaseous spheroid, one by one, as seems more probable than separation by rings, their aggregation would be FUNDAMENTAL PROBLKMS OF GEOLOGY. 227 equally open to the supposedly fatal weakness. So indeed is the concentration of any kind of an assemblage of discrete matter in which the individual molecules or aggregates revolve independently. The supposed fatal difficulty is as follows: In a ring revolving as a unit, as the Laplacian rings are supposed to have done, the outer part moves faster than the inner part, and so, if a planetary ring breaks at its weakest point and gathers into a globe about the center of its cross-section, it will xoX.2X^ forward. If, on the other hand, the particles of the ring revolve indepe^idently ^ the inner ones must move faster than the outer ones, and if they collect about the middle part, it has been held that the rotation must be retrograde. "^^ By w^ay of exception, to meet the singular cases of Uranus and Neptune, it has been suggested that if the matter of the planetary rings, revolving as units, happened to collect about some point other than the center of the cross-section, the foregoing conclusions would not hold ; but if the matter were drawn together by gravity simply, as usually supposed under the Laplacian hypothesis, it is not evident why it should not collect about the middle part. Now, as a matter of fact, the six inner planets and their satellites rotate forward. The satellites of Uranus revolve backward in a plane inclined 82.2° to the ecliptic; those of Neptune also revolve backward in a plane inclined 34.5° to the ecliptic. The rotations of the planets themselves have not been determined. These exceptional inclinations and rotations have been interpreted as very oblique or partially overturned rotations. Accepting the foregoing premises, the prevalence of direct rotation has been regarded as strongly confirma- tory of an origin from gaseous rings rotating as units, and as strongly adverse to accretion from bodies revolving independently. The force of this line of reasoning has apparently been felt to be so strong as to be essentially fatal to the latter conception. It therefore requires critical consideration. The reasoning is good for the special case cited, that of a symmet- rical ring of perfectly circular form, in which the inner bodies in uniting with the outer ones are supposed to strike their inner sides. To bring about this delicate adjustment systematically, the orbits must remain clo.sely concentric and the inner ones must be enlarged, or the outer ones be reduced so that the}' will approach concentrically to within the sum of the semi-diameters of the bodies to be united. If planetesimals were arranged in strictly circular concentric orbits, * For ampler statements of this difficulty, see Faye, Sur I'Origiue du Monde, pp. 165, 270-281, 1S96 ; also Young's General Astronomy, pp. 518-520. 228 CARNKGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. and were separated from one another at the distances the case re- quires, the mechanics by which thej^ could be brought into this spe- cial mode of collision consecutively is not evident and has not been explicitly pointed out. It is certain that their union into a spheroid would not be by any means the simple, direct, and rapid process usually assumed.* On consideration it will be seen that the postu- lated case is a very special and quite artificial one, for all the present planetary orbits are elliptical and are by no means strictly concentric. It becomes evident, on studious consideration, that in any case which could probably arise from any actual antecedents; the planet- esimals rmist have had elliptical orbits ; for even if they arose from a gaseous ring of the Laplacian type the rebounds of the molecules as they collided and separated must have given ri.se to non-concentric elliptical orbits. Even in this case the measure of the eccentricities must probably have been many million times the sum of the semi- diameters of the particles. In the ca.se of planetesimals derived from a .spiral nebula, the orbits are necessarily assigned very notable eccentricities. In all these cases the most available mode of aggre- gation, if not the sole practicable one, lies in ike crossing of the orbits brought about by the constant shifting of their major axes, as already set forth. Now, a planetesimal in a .smaller elliptical orbit can come into con- tact with a planetary nucleus in a larger orbit 07ily when a more or less aphelion portion of it s orbit coincides with a more or less peri- helion portion of the larger orbit of the nucleus, and a planetesimal in a larger orbit can come into contact with a planetary nucleus in a smaller orbit only when a more or less perihelion portion of its orbit coincides with a more or less aphelion portion of the nucleus' orbit. Now, the vital point lies in the fact that at the point of collisio7i the body in the smaller orbit is moving slozver than the one in the larger orbit, though on the average it moves the fa.ster. If the body in the outer orbit were always to strike the outside of the body in the inner orbit, the impact would contribute to forward rotation ; but the orbits may cross one another, and the body in the inner orbit may have pas.sed the cro.s.sing before it is overtaken by the body in the outer orbit, and so the inertia of the overtaken body may be felt on the outer side of the nucleus and tend to produce ret- rograde rotation. It is, therefore, necessary to take account of two * This has been discus-sed mathematically by F. R. Moulton : An Attempt to Test the Nebular Hypothesis by an Appeal to the Laws of Dynamics. Astrophys. Jour., Vol. XI, pp. 115-126, 1900. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 229 opposite classes of effects and to estimate the residual influence of all probable collisions. It will be seen at once that this residual influ- ence must be far less in magnitude than the sum of the forces of all impacts, for the opposing classes neutralize one another, and hence the resulting rotation is likel)' to be relatively low, though the total force of impact be great. It is further evident that the result might have varied considerably in the different planets, and this is in con- cordance with the varying rotations actualh^ presented by the several planets. It is still further obvious, on inspection, that the greatest differ- ences of velocit)^, and hence the greatest rotatory effects, must occur in the extreme or limiting cases of collision that occur at the perihe- lion and aphelion points of the nucleus' orbit ; for, where the orbits have more nearly the same dimensions and the crossings are at points intermediate between these extremes, the differences of velocity are less and the rotatory effects less, whatever their phases. By graphical inspection of all probable cases, it may be seen that the possibilities of overtake favorable to forward rotation exceed those favorable to retrograde rotation. This holds true on the as- sumption of an equable distribution of planetesimals, which may fairly be assumed as an average fact, but not necessarily as always the fact ; and hence the conclusion is not rigorous, and a backward rotation is not impossible. From the nature of the case, a varying rotation for the several planets is more probable than a nearly uniform one. It is also obvious that the impacts on the right and left sides of a growing nucleus, as well as those on the outer and inner sides, might be unequal, and hence obliquity of rotation of varying kinds and degrees might arise. As the solar system presents these variations, the method of accretion here postulated seems to lend itself happily to the requirements of the case. There is a supplementary factor arising from the order in which the co7itingency of collision arises. If a planetesimal is subject to two equal contingencies of collision with the planetary nucleus of oppo- site effect, it is obvious that the one which it first encounters has a better chance of realization than the other ; for if the first is realized the second loses its chance. Now, b}' inspection it maj^ be seen that, in the shifting of the inner orbits, it will be possible for the plan- etesimals to collide with the inner side of a nucleus earlier than with the outer side, and hence forward rotation is favored. So, also, by an examination of the orbits of the outer planetesimals a similar fact 230 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. is made obvious. Thus the order in which the possibilities of col- lision are brought into effect favors direct rotation. From the previous discussion it will be seen that a planetary nucleus gathers planetesimals that have orbits both smaller and larger than itself, and hence in effect it sweeps a space both outside and inside its own zone. The breadth of this space is dependent on the eccentricity of its own orbit and on the eccentricities' of the orbits of the planetesimals it gathers in on either hand. It is obvious that there may have been two or more nuclei orig- inally within the same zone. If one of these was notably smaller than the other, it might be picked up by the latter the same as if it were a planetesimal. Two of equal size might perhaps unite, though this would not necessarily take place. Two nuclei in nearly the same zone must feed upon the same belt of planetesimals and must mutually interfere with one another's growth. If there were little difference in their masses at the outset, that one which was best spaced out from the nuclei in neighboring zones would be likely to become dominant by superior growth, for it would have a better feeding-ground, so to speak. Even a nucleus that was smaller at the outset, if well separated from large competitors might become the dominant one by a better growth. If there were originallj^ man}' nuclei of minor mass and if these were much scattered, especially if the planes of their orbits were diverse, the dominance of any one might be avoided and a scanty growth of all result, as in the case of the asteroids. It seems to be a sure inference that in the process of growth the nucleus must have ivorked toward the center of the zone from which it gathered, as a consequence of the superior feeding on the richer side. For example, if more planetesimals were picked up on orbits smaller than its own, its orbit must have grown smaller as a me- chanical result of the accretion, for a new orbit, arising from the union of two bodies, is intermediate between the two previous orbits, and hence smaller than the larger one. If more planetesimals were picked up on the outer side, the orbit of the nucleus must have grown larger. The nucleus, therefore, must have worked toward the center of the richer feeding-ground, or in average cases of equable original distribution, toward the ground not preyed upon by other nuclei. The foregoing processes tended toward a selection of nuclei for dominance and to an automatic spacing out of the successful nuclei. This process, if our hypothesis be true, should find verification in the FUNDAMENTAL PROBLKMS OF GEOLOGY. 23 1 actual distribution of the planets and be an explanation of it. This distribution should correspond to the eccentricities of the nuclei, modified by the proportions of planetesimals of larger and smaller orbits gathered in by them. Assuming these to have been somewhat equable, the planetary distribution should be roughly proportional to the eccentricities of the nuclear orbits. As a basis for inspection, let it be supposed that the collecting zone of each planet reaches half- way to its neighbor on either hand, and let the eccentricity of the orbit of each nucleus be such that the nucleus itself shall sweep its whole collecting zone, which is more than the case absolutely requires. The following are the eccentricities so derived compared with present eccentricities : Assigned Present eccentricity, eccentricity. Nucleus of Mercury o.25± 0.2 Venus 21 .006 Earth 2 .017 Mars 28 .093 Asteroids (mean) 33 .38 downward.* Jupiter 336 .048 Saturn 366 .056 Uranus 37 -"46 Neptune 38± .009 There being no known planet outside of Neptune, the method can only be applied to it by an arbitrary assumption regarding its outside collecting area. It may be reasonably assumed that the nucleus of Neptune represented the head of tlie protuberance, so to speak, and that its accretion was essentially all on the inner side, which would draw its orbit inward, according to the principle above stated. This may account for its anomalous spacing out. There being no known planet inside Mercury, the eccentricity assigned it is also in a measure arbitrar>\ With these qualifications, it will be seen that the assigned eccen- tricities are quite harmonious, and on the whole they indicate a progressively- greater original eccentricity from within outward. By comparison with the existing eccentricities it will be seen that the assigned original ones are much the more consistent. The reason for this, under our hypothesis, is close at hand. According to the principle of evolution from eccentricity toward circularity, stated above, the greater the accretion the greater the progress toward cir- cularity. This is qualified somewhat by the perturbations which * Mean about 0.15. 232 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WA.SHINGTON. the planets create in one another's orbits and by the special condi- tions of aggregation, but remains essentially true. For the large planets that have dominated their collecting zones and presumably swept them thoroughly, the reductions of eccentricity are subequal. For the very small bodies that presuraabh' grew but little, the eccen- tricities remain large, for the greater part. For example, the eccen- tricity of Mercury, the smallest of the planets, remains more than twice that of any other planet. Mars, the next smallest in size, comes next in eccentricity among the planets, while the asteroids, which probably grew but little, have high eccentricities, as a rule. Their orbits have doubtless been not a little disturbed by the great influence of their powerful neighbor, Jupiter, and a rigorous appli- cation of so general a law as the one under consideration can not be made to the details of their orbits, but the tenor of the facts is very suggestive. The highest eccentricity, 0.38, is as high as the highest eccentricity assigned to the original nuclei of the planets. Of the seventy asteroids whose diameters are fairl}- well known, the half that are larger and presumablj- have grown most have less eccentric orbits by 13.7 per cent than the half that are smaller and presum- ably have grown less. Of the orbital elements of 278 asteroids ex- amined, the half having the lowest inclination to the common plane of the sj'stem, and so best suited for accretion, have eccentricities 21.9 per cent less than those of greater inclination. The orbits of Neptune and Venus are exceptionally circular, the former, perhaps, on account of its outermost position and mode of accretion, as pre- viously suggested ; the latter for reasons not obvious. Rigorously consistent results can not be expected from such antecedents as are postulated in a case of this kind, and the mutual perturbations of the planets introduce variations from the average eccentricities. The degree of consistency noted is, perhaps, to be regarded as much more remarkable than the departures from it. If this view of the spacing out of the planets be entertained, a rational law may be substituted for the purely numerical fornuilation known as Bode's law, viz, that the spacing has been derived from a fairly consistent variation in the primitive eccentricities of the planetesimals and nuclei of the parent nebula, in which the outer were symmetrically greater than the inner. It has thus been my endeavor to develop the hypothesis into suflEi- cient detail ( i ) to furnish a large number of points of contact with known phenomena and with recognized mechanical principles to facilitate testing its verity by those relations, if not worn, at least in FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 233 the early progress of investigation ; (2) to furnish a basis for de- ducing the hypothetical stages of the earth that preceded its known history, and for drawing thence inferences as to the conditions of the interior which the earth inherited from the mode of its birth; and (3) to stimulate inquiry into the elements involved. In short, I have endeavored to give the hypothesis a working form under the conviction that so long as the complicated elements involved remain so imperfectly determined as at present its working value is its chief value. To bring out the geological bearings of the planetesimal hj'pothesis, I have given considerable time to a study of the probable stages of growth of the early earth, of the time and mode of introduction of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and of the initiation of the great topographic features, together with the leading modern processes. While it is clear that there may be a somewhat wide range of sub- hypotheses relative to these stages as to the earlier, it was thought best, as before, to develop a single line definitely. The line selected is in direct sequence to that chosen for the earlier stages, so that there should be no resting back on factors not previously introduced, and so that the whole should be consistent. Of course, the complete scheme contemplates the development of the alternative sub-hypotheses. Following the postulates of the previous sketch, a nebular knot is assumed to have been the nucleus of the growing earth. It has not been thought important to consider at much length the special state of organization of the material of this nucleus, since by assump- tion it constituted but a minor part of the grown planet, and its ultimate condition would probably be that of the dominant mass, or, if not, would be so deeply central as to have little geologic impor- tance. Assuming that the nuclear mass was quite small, it is inferred that it was composed chiefly of matter of high molecular weight, since light molecules would be liable to escape because of their velocities. The nucleus is supposed to have been originally an assemblage of planetesimals grouped together by their mutual gravity, and to have passed graduall}- into a solid mass in connection with the capture of outside planetesimals. As the planetesimals were solid aggregates in the main, and only partially elastic, their collisions are assumed to have destroyed their orbital motions in a certain proportion of cases and to have led to their collection at the center. In other cases the orbital motions were doubtless increased, but any planetesimals which were thus temporarily driven away were subject to subsequent capture. As the solid nucleus thus formed mav not have been massive 234 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. enough to control a gaseous envelope in its earlier stages, a possible atmosphereless stage is to be recognized. Just how massive a plan- etary body must be to hold permanently an appreciable atmosphere is not accurately computable at present, because of the uncertain value of some of the factors involved.* A fairly safe conclusion may perhaps be drawn from known celestial bodies. The moon (g^j- of earth's mass) has no detectable atmosphere, nor has any smaller body, whether satellite or asteroid, so far as known. Mars (j\^ of earth's mass) has an appreciable, but apparently quite limited, atmosphere. The limit between atmosphereless and atmos- phere-bearing bodies probably lies between the two — /. e. , roundly between one-eightieth and one-tenth of the earth's mass. The mass of Mercury, unfortunately, is not known with satisfactor>' accuracy, because it has no satellite and offers no other ready means of determi- nation. Values all the waj- from one twenty-sixth to one- ninth of the earth's mass have been assigned. Mercury gives no distinct signs of atmospheric refraction, and its reflection of light (albedo) is very low, even lower than that of the moon, and, like that of the moon, is relatively much stronger for surfaces normal to the line of incidence and of vision than for those oblique to it, which is characteristic of a rough surface. All this inaplies the aKsence of an atmosphere and hydrosphere of sufficient value to give effective reflection of them- selves or to develop a good reflecting body by smoothing down the surface and filling up the pores. On the other hand, certain lines of the planet's spectrum have been thought to imply the presence of water- vapor ; but this is not conclusive. The probabilities seem to be that Mercur>" has no atmosphere that is effective as a weathering or degradational agent, which is the point of geologic interest. This brings the limit of appreciable atmosphere much nearer Mars * The following papers bear upon this subject : G. Johnstone Stoney : On the Cause of the Absence of Hydrogen from the Earth's Atmosphere, and of Air and Water from the Moon ; Poy. Dublin Soc, 1892. G. Johnstone Stoney : On Atmospheres upon Plants and Satellites ; Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, 2d series, 6, 1897 ; ibid., 1898, p. 305. T. C. Chamberlin : A Group of Hypotheses Bearing on Climatic Changes ; Jour. Geol., vol. V, 1897, p. 653. G. Johnstone Stoney : On the Presence of Helium in the Earth's Atmosphere and its Relation to the Kinetic Theory of Gas ; Astrophys. Jour., vol. VIII. Dec, 1898, p. 316. S. R Cook : On the Escape of Gases from Planetary Atmospheres According to the Kinetic Theory; Astrophys. Jour., vol. XI, Jan., 1900, p. 36. G. Johnstone Stoney : On the Escape of Gases from Planetary Atmospheres According to the Kinetic Theory, No. I; Astrophys. Jour., vol. XI, May, 1900, p. 251 ; No. II, idid., June, 1900, p. 325. G. Johnstone Stoney : Note on Inquiries as to the Escape of Gases from Atmospheres ; ibid., vol. XII, Oct., 1900, p. 201. FUNDAMENTAL' PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 235 than the moon and justifies the provisional conclusion that if the young earth had no more than one-twentieth of its present mass it probably possessed no atmosphere of appreciable geological efficienc}-, but that when it had gained one-tenth of its present mass (radius probably about 2, 100 miles) an appreciable, though relatively slight, atmosphere surrounded it. When the growing earth reached a mass sufficient to control the flying molecules of atmospheric material, there were two sources from which these could be supplied for the accumulation of an atmosphere, an external and an internal one. By hypothesis, all the atmospheric and hydrospheric material of the parent nebula which was not gathered into the aggregated plan- etesimals remained as free-molecular planetesimals. While the plan- etary nucleus was small it probably could not gather and hold the lighter molecules, even when they collided with it, except as this was done by occlusion or surface tension, in which case the}' did not form an atmosphere ; but when the growing earth reached the requi- site mass these free atmospheric molecules were gathered about it and retained as an atmospheric envelope. This would be a more abun- dant source of suppl}' during the nebular stages than afterward, but by hypothesis it continues to be a source of some supply even to the present time, for the very doctrine that postulates the loss of such high-speed molecules implies their presence in space, subject to capture by bodies capable of capturing them. In the later stages of organization, and thence down to the present time, the molecules discharged from all the bodies of the solar system were possible sources of atmospheric accretion. Of these the most important were probably volcanic and similar discharges from the small bodies that could not hold gases permanently and discharges from the sun by virtue of the enormous explosive and radiant energies that are there resident. As the planetesimals were gathered into the growing earth-nucleus they carried their occluded gases in with them, except as the super- ficial portion might be set free by the heat of impact. There was thus built into the growing earth atmospheric material. So, also, while the nucleus was growing it was subjected to the bombard- ment of free molecular planetesimals of the atmospheric substances. In its early stages it might not be able to hold these as a free gaseous envelope, but to a certain extent it could hold, by virtue of capillary and subcapillary attraction, .such molecules as were driven into the 236 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. pores and other interstices of the fragmental surface arising from the infall of the solid planetesimals. The extent to which gases may be held condensed in small solid bodies is shown by meteorites and igneous rocks to be large. Mete- orites carry on the average several times their volume of condensed gas ; so do many, probably most, igneous rocks of the earth. The testimony of the meteorites is peculiarly significant here, for they have traversed unknown depths of space in a practical vacuum, in addition to the vicissitudes of their origin and the heating of their fall. Atmospheric material is carried into the earth's body by them today in quantities that are large relative to their masses. Their testimony becomes the more significant if we accept the view of their origin which makes them but the fragments of small atmos- phereless bodies, built up precisely as the early earth was under this hypothesis. This view makes them specific samples of the products of the assigned process. The atmospheric material thus condensed within the growing earth could become a part of the atmospheric envelope only by extrusion. The assigned modes of extrusion will be considered presently ; mean- while it may be assumed that these internal gases were given forth progressively and fed the atmosphere. The contribution made by the external sources of atmospheric material might include any constituent of the ancestral sun that could remain free in the nebula and be picked up and held by the earth. Some portion of the constituents of the present atmosphere may therefore be assigned to this source. In what ratio these con- stituents were contributed to the nebula probably depended on their proportions in the ancestral sun, or rather their proportions in that part of the ancestral sun that was dispersed to form the parent nebula. Concerning this little can safely be said. Hydrogen is apparently very abundant in the other part of the sun, but it is doubtful whether the earth can even now hold hydrogen in a free state permanently in any large amount. Of the proportions of the common atmospheric constituents in the sun in a free state little is known. The gases chiefly occluded in meteorites and the crystalline rocks are hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide in leading amounts, and marsh-gas and nitrogen in small quantities. It is as- sumed that the gases of the aggregated planetesimals, and hence those of the interior of the early earth, were of the same order of abun- dance. There is experimental ground for believing that, at the right temperatures and pressures, hydrogen would take oxygen from ferric FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 237 oxide (which, from the analogy of igneous rocks and meteorites, may be presumed to have abounded in the earth material) and there- with form water. The gases extruded from the interior should therefore have been largely water-vapor and the carbon oxides, with minor quantities of hydrocarbons and nitrogen. To these might be added such chlorine, sulphur, and other temporarj^ gases as the vola- tile ingredients of the rock material might contribute through vol- canic action ; but these chemically vigorous constituents would doubtless soon disappear by union with the rock material. It is probable that carbon monoxide would pass into carbon dioxide, as it does not now accumulate in the atmosphere, although abundantly produced. The marsh gas also disappears in some way. The material of internal derivation available for the atmosphere, therefore, embraced chiefly water-vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitro- gen. Oxygen is now given forth in some abundance bj^ volcanoes, but it is not known whether it really comes from the interior or has merely been carried down from the surface. The reduction of ferric oxide under certain conditions (the reverse of the process by which water is assumed to have been found) might possibly give free oxygen. The material of external derivation might probably embrace all the atmospheric constituents, but in proportions unknown. In determining the actual proportions of the constituents of the early atmosphere, the abundance of the supply was probably less decisive than the power of the earth to hold the individual gases. As gravity gradually increased by the growth of the earth from an incompetent minimum, its power to control the heaviest molecules with the lowest velocities was acquired before its ability to hold the lighter ones of higher velocities. According to the kinetic theory, molecular velocities vary inversel}^ as the square root of the molecu- lar weights. Assuming this to be correct, the leading constituents would be held in the following order, it being noticed that moleades, not atoms, must be dealt with : Molecular Average molecular Molecules. weights (in round velocities at 0° C iu numbers). cm. per sec. CO5 44 33.259 Oj 32 39.155 N5 28 41,735 H.,0 18 56,522 H, 2 169,611 The commingling of the gases introduced some modifications of the limitations of retention, and these were favorable to the lighter gases ; but the refinements of the case are of no moment here. 238 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Carbou dioxide would be held some appreciable time before oxy- gen, and still longer before nitrogen, and all these a notable time before the vapor of water. The inference is that the initial atmos- phere was ver>- rich in carbon dioxide, for an abundant supply was correlated with a superior power of retention. The amount of oxygen in the early atmosphere is more uncertain from doubt as to a competent source of supply. Crystalline rocks and meteorites are not known to contain it in a free state. As above remarked, it occurs among volcanic gases, but it is not known that it comes from the deep interior. It is detected in the sun and not improbably existed in the nebula, from which it might have been gathered shortly after the accretion of carbon dioxide began. The safer inference seems to be that it was not very abundant rela- tively in the earh' atmosphere. This inference may be entertained the more freely because it seems to give the better working hypoth- esis, for the present large proportion of oxygen may be assigned to the reduction of carbon dioxide by plant action, and the present proportions and those of geologic history' seem to come out best on this basis. For the primitive atmosphere there is theoretical need for only enough oxygen to support the primitive plant life until it could supply itself, after which it would produce a surplus. The amount of nitrogen occluded in rocks and meteorites is rela- tively small, and it was perhaps a small constituent of the early atmosphere. Owing to its chemical inertness, it may be supposed to have been increasing ever since, and thus to have attained its present dominance. A similar history maj- be assigned to the other and even more inert elements, argon, neon, zenon, krypton, and he- lium, of which the supplies seem to have been always very limited. After the earth acquired the power of holding water-vapor, the supply being abundant, accession doubtless went on for a time as fast as the capacity to hold increased. The problem of vulcanism assumes a quite new aspect under the planetesimal hypothesis, if ver\' slow accretion without very high temperature be assumed. It has been taken for granted in the pre- ceding statement that there was volcanic action. It is necessary, therefore, to consider how volcanic action may have arisen, and this involves the more radical question how the high internal tempera- tures of the earth may have arisen if the earth did not inherit its heat from a molten condition arising from a gaseous origin. The total amount of heat produced by the infall of the planetesi- mals would undoubtedly be more than sufficient to melt the whole FUNDAMENTAL, PROBI^EMS OF GEOLOGY. 239 mass if the heat were all generated at the same instant ; but if it were generated in successive moieties spread over a long period and generated at the surface, where readilj- radiated away, no large amount might be retained, and high internal heat, such as required for vulcauism, might not be assignable to this source. In the pres- ent state of knowledge the hypothesis may not unreasonably be given such a form as to make this source partially available by assuming that in the early stages of accretion, while the nebular planetesimals were still relatively numerous, the collisions between them and the nucleus were so frequent as to make the latter hot. It is possible that mathematical inquiries contemplated, but not yet carried out, will show that this was probable, and that a rate of accretion so slow as to give a cool exterior would only come later, after the planetesimals of the feeding zone had been thinned out ; but until that can be shown the hypothesis must face the alternative possibility that the collisions did not succeed one another so rapidly as to greatly heat the growing earth body by impact. An unknown amount of heat may have been inherited from the nebular knot that constituted the original earth-nucleus. This knot is supposed to have consisted of an assemblage of small aggregates made from the heavy molecules of the nebular material ; in other words, chiefly the metallic and the rock substances. This is held to be so because these substances would condense to the liquid and solid state at high temperatures, and further because, having low molecular velocities and relatively high gravity, they could assemble and remain associated by mutual attraction, while molecules of low weights and high velocities could not. These assemblages were probably rotatory or revolutionary, but perhaps of a very irregular kind, somewhere midway between a well-organized planetesimal system and a heterogenous gaseous or collision-rebound system, and combining some of the qualities of each. The ingathering of planet- esimals from without probably tended to increase the irregularity, and to cause the assemblage to become more and more gas-like in dynamic nature. The matter being rock substance or metallic, and hence partially inelastic, and the collisional velocities generally low, the mode of condensation was probably only in part analogous to that of a gas, but it is possible that an internal temperature not unlike that of a condensing gas might be developed . The young earth may, therefore, have inherited a hot nucleus. The chief source of internal heat is, however, assigned to the progressive condensation of the growing body as material was added 17 240 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. to its surface. The amouut of this condensational heat for the full- grown earth, computed on the best data now available, seems to be ample to meet all the requirements of the known geologic ages, as brought out in the investigations of Dr. lyuun.* That heat arising from condensation solely would reach the melting temperature of rock in a body one-twentieth of the earth's mass seems more or less doubtful, but in a body one-tenth of the earth's mass the required conditions would probably be reached. The requisite data are too imperfect for a definite decision of this point at present. If the pits of the moon (JL. of the earth's mass) represent volcanic explosions, and not the infall of planetoids as Gilbert suggests,! it is necessary to postulate in its case conditions very favorable to the generation of heat by compression, or else to assign some notable portion of the requisite heat to the quasi-gaseous condensation of the nucleus, to the collisions of planetesimals, and to the source next to be con- sidered, all of which would necessarily contribute something to the sum total of internal heat. Another source of heat lay in the atomic and molecular rearrange- ment of the material after it became entrapped in the growing mass. This was not simply chemical recombination, as usually understood, but molecular readjustment under pressure as well. The planet- esimals were aggregated, by hypothesis, in a vacuum of the highest order, and with -very slight mutual gravity, and the mode of molec- ular arrangement was that suited to this extremely low pressure. Under the rising pressure of the earth's interior, new arrangements of the molecules into denser forms with lower specific heats are theoretically assignable, if not inevitable, with the freeing of heat as a consequence. In a sense this is a mode of condensation falling under the previous head, but it is not identical with mere mechanical compression and is not wholly covered by computations based on that. With the detailed conceptions now developed, the method of vol- canic action deduced from the accretion hypothesis may be readily apprehended and the vital part assigned to it in earth history may be realized. The chief portion of internal heat being assigned to com- pression, the temperature must have been highest at the center, be- cause the compression was greatest there, and must have declined toward the surface. Pressure itself is probably incompetent to melt rock substances that shrink in solidifying, but the high temperatures generated by pressure * See statement appended to this report. fBiill. Phil. Soc. Washington, Vol. XII, 1892, pp. 241-292. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 24 1 in the deep interior were constantly moving outward into horizons of lower pressures, where the melting-points were lower. As the computed temperature at the center of the adult earth is about 20,000° C.,* there would seem to be no lack of heat, in the later stages at least. The essence of the problem lies in its redistribution and in its selective action. The material of the interior was originally, b}^ hypothesis, an inti- mate mixture of planetesimals of various kinds, with such gaseous material as they carried in or entrapped in the process of growth. This material, therefore, presumably ranged from the most fusible to the most infusible of rock material that could take the form of aggregated planetesimals. As some of it was probably the kind that shrinks much in solidifying, and some of the kind that shrinks little, and some possibly of the kind that does not shrink at all in solidifying, it is probable that some of it was brought near or even to the melting-point b}^ pressure, while other parts, intimately intermixed with these, were far from their melting-points. At any rate, the outward flow of heat in such a mixture must bring some parts to fusibility much before the melting-points of other parts were reached. Local spots of fusion must thus arise. To this fusion the entrapped and occluded gases may be presumed to have contributed and to have joined themselves to the fused masses, and to have aided in giving them fluidity. As the rise of temperature continued, more and more of the mixed material reached the fusing-point, while other material so nearly ap- proached it as to become plastic and permit readjustive movements. In this way fused points are supposed to have been permitted to join one another and to move in the direction of least resistance. The static pressure from the earth body itself was always greatest below and least above, but was nearly constant for any given short period. The stresses arising from the differential tide-producing attractions of the sun and moon ^vere also greatest below and least above, but were periodic, stress and relief following one another in semi-daily succession, giving a kind of kneading process. These interior stress differences are thought to have pressed outward the fused vesicles, causing them to unite and form threads or stringlets, insinuating themselves through the more refractory portions that remained solid, and at length developing into tongues of some volume; As these liquid threads or tongues rose to higher horizons of lower pressures, ^ See the investigations of Dr. Lunn. 242 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. and hence of lower melting-points, they carried with them a certain surplus of heat above that required to maintain their liquidity in the new horizon, and this surplus was available for melting or fluxing their way. They were at the same time, however, subject to loss of heat by contact with surrounding rock of lower temperature. They were thus probably at the same time taking up fusible material met in their path and depositing old material as it became less adapted to remain fluid under the new conditions, either because it had reached the point of its saturation in the mixed rock solution that had been developed or had cooled to its point of congelation. The liquid thread was thus presumably taking on and giving up material con- tinually as it worked its way outward, the process always being selective and involving the retention of the more soluble or more fusible portions and the rejection of the less soluble or more refrac- tory portions. Since the included gases may be safely reckoned with the former class, there was a selective accumulation of these, and the ascending liquid became densely charged with them. To this ascensive process those substances whose weight overbalanced the differential pressure, such as metallic iron and possibly the heaviest silicates, may be regarded as forming exceptions. Theory does not require that these threads should all succeed in reaching the surface ; indeed, it does not require that an}' should in the initial stages, before compression had developed a great excess of heat in the central parts. The molten threads should simply rise until their excess of heat, their working capital, was exhausted, when they would return to the solid state and constitute tongue-like intrusions. In doing this they would contribute heat to the tracts which they invaded. This, in addition to conduction, was a mode of conveying the intenser heat of the compressed central regions to the higher horizons, where the original temperature was lower and the fusing-points lower. The failure of the earlier threads to reach the surface would thus be a means preparatory to the greater suc- cess of later ones. The conditions for penetration would probably be favorable up to the horizon where the temperature ceased to be higher than the surface melting-point. Below this the retention of the solid state was wholly due to pressure, the temperature being above the surface melting-point. When the threads reached the higher zone, in which the temperature was appreciably below the surface fusing-point, the conditions were clearly adverse, and fur- ther ascent was dependent on a sufficient excess of heat brought from below to maintain the liquid state while this adverse tract was FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 243 being traversed. It was probably also dependent on a fluxing power adequate to enable it to fuse its way through the solid zone of con- tinuous rock that lies below the fracture zone. When it reached the latter, hydrostatic pressure and the inherent expansive force of its gaseous content would probably control its further course in the main. Now having in mind that, at the early stage under consideration, the earth was growing, that its internal self-compression was in- creasing apace with its growth, that the heat was rising with the compression, that the temperature was highest at the center and graded toward the surface, and that it was also carried outward bj^ the liquid threads, the succeeding steps may be followed easily. The outer part of the young earth was made up of the recently fallen planetesimals and their fragments, and no doubt had a much- broken, open texture. If there was as yet no atmosphere nor hy- drosphere, as in the case of the moon, there was no effective process for the wash of fine fragments into the interstices of the coarse, or, what is more important, for the solution of the material at the surface and the cementation of that below into a solid mass, as is the present habit on the earth ; in other words, there was no effective healing process to unite the broken fragments. The porous clastic zone must therefore have extended downward to a depth at which gravity was able to force the fragments into continuity by its crush- ing effects. In a small body this zone would be deep. When the rising lava tongues reached this outer fragmental zone, fluxing was no longer required, as they could force their way by in- sinuation and by mechanical displacement. It appears almost certain that in the upper part of such a fragmental zone the interstices would make up a sufficient part of the volume of the aggregate mass to reduce its average specific gravitj^ to a figure below that of the penetrating lava, even though the latter might be made up of lighter material inherently, and was also hot and liquid. The earliest tongues of molten material are supposed, therefore, to have generally lodged within the fragmental zone, taking various plutonic forms, as dikes, sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, and to have there given off their gases, which, more or less concentrated and condensed, doubt- less not infrequently forced an exit to the surface b)' blowing away the overlying fragmental material. The slight coherence of this material, the low gravity of the young earth, and the absence or scantiness of a resisting atmosphere should combine to give to the pit-forming effects extraordinary magnitude, such, perhaps, as the moon exhibits. 244 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. It is not necessary to the hypothesis to suppose that volcanic action was an essential preliminary to the acquisition of an atmosphere, nor that it came into function before the earth acquired an atmosphere, for the initial atmosphere may have been supplied from external sources. The apparent vigor and the wide prevalence of volcanic action on the moon, if its pitted surface means vulcanism, as well as the glassy material found in meteorites, whose origin is referred pref- erably to small atmosphereless bodies, favors the view that the inter- nal gases were given forth abundantly before the earth grew to a mass sufficient to hold them. If this were true, an ample source of atmospheric supply was ready and waiting when the earth first acquired sufficient gravity to clothe itself with a gaseous envelope. When the increasing water-vapor of the growing atmosphere reached the point of saturation, it is of course assumed to have taken the liquid form and became a contribution to the hydrosphere. Probably condensation had occurred within the fragmental zone long before the external atmosphere reached saturation. The hydro- sphere, therefore, probably had its birth under ground, and so long as the fragmental zone retained its highly porous condition it was what its name implies, a veritable sphere or spheroidal layer. As accumulation went on, it is assumed to have risen to the surface, and doubtless first appeared in the innumerable pits resulting from the previous volcanic action and in the depressions resulting from other deforming agencies. Its surface deplojmient is, therefore, pictured as a growth from innumerable lakelets scattered with unknown pro- miscuousness over the face of the 3'oung planet, into more and more enlarged and confluent bodies, until at length they developed into the vast irregular oceans of to-day. This evolution is of fundamental geologic importance, for it involves the origin of the ocean basins and of the continental platforms, and these constitute at once the grand topographic features of the globe, the great integers of deformation, and the controlling physical factors in the evolution of life. The evolution of the ocean basins and the continental platforms under this hypothesis is, however, exceedingly simple. With the acquisition of an atmosphere and a hydrosphere, the condi- ditions for weathering were present, and all those attendant processes of a gradational nature which constitute the dominant surface work of to-day. For the present study, two features of these gradational processes overshadow all others, ( i ) the leacking action of the atmospheric waters, and ( 2 ) the relative protection of the water bodies. The essence of the FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 245 leaching process is this : Through the action of the atmosphere and atmospheric waters the basic material is more largelj- dissolved and carried away than the acidic. When the weathering is thorough, the residue is chiefly quartzose sand— if the original rock contained quartz — and various residual earths and clays which are essentially silicious silts and aluminum silicates, with a low percentage of the basic oxides. If these earths and clays are turned back into crys- talline rocks by metamorphism, they form acidic schists or gneisses, w^hile the quartzose sand becomes quartzite. The material borne away in solution consists mainly of compounds of the alkalies and alkaline earths. A part of this is redeposited within the zone of the h^^dro- sphere beneath the land, and a part is borne to the sea and remains in solution or is depo-sited beneath it. Although some decomposition takes place in the zone of the hydrosphere beneath the land, and some also beneath the permanent water bodies, it is clearly less than that which takes place in the zone of the atmosphere, and this difference in the sum total of work done is all that need here be considered. There can be no question that the land areas lose by leaching and the water areas gain correspondingly. The general effect is an in- crease in the acidity and a reduction in the specific gravity of the land material. This includes the land wash deposited on the borders of the continents. Now, when the growing hydrosphere crept up to the surface and covered the lower tracts a selective action of this kind began. The surface material of the areas that remained exposed lost more of its ba.sic than of its acidic constituents, while the submerged material lost less and perhaps gained something by the redisposition of the matter borne in from the land. As the plauetesimals were being gathered in on land and w^ater alike, those that fell on the land suf- fered some atmospheric action, while those that fell into the water were mainly protected from it. As this differential action affected each successive layer of growth after the accumulation of surface waters began, the specific gravity of the land areas came to be less than that of the submerged areas. It is not the temporary- specific gravity that resulted from the change of ph^^sical state involved in disintegration that is to be con- sidered here, but rather what maybe termed the inherent or perma- nent specific gravity — i. e. , the specific gravity that would be retained after any metamorphism which the material might probably suffer in the future had taken place. So, likewise, it is not the temporary chemical combinations arising immediateh' from the weathering, but 246 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. the potential future combinations that are significant. For example, any rock likely to arise from the residual sands, earths, and clays by any probable metamorphism, or even by remelting, would have a lower specific gravity than the original average rock, or than any rock likely to be developed from the alkalies and alkaline earths removed by the leaching process in connection with the original rock. The leaching of the land material had, therefore, a permanent effect on its specific gravity — an effect not eliminated by any probable change resulting from its burial under late accumulations. The segments built up by accretion on the land were hence lighter than the segments built up under the waters, and the difference increased as the segments grew in thickness. It follows from the greater weight of the water- covered segments that the compression beneath them, as 'they became more and more weighted with incoming material, was greater than the compression beneath the land segments, and hence the water-covered areas were depressed relatively more than the land areas. The waters drawn in upon the depressed segments augmented the depressing effects due to difference in specific gravity. It is not necessary to suppose that there was at the outset a gen- eral or continuous covering of certain large areas by water and a general and continuous prevalence of land in other regions, but merely that over certain portions of the globe water areas were more abundant than over other areas. Where water predominated it may at first have taken the form of numerous small bodies. Such areas of prevalent water would, on the average, become heavier than other areas, and hence, acting more or less as units, would become more depressed. This excess of depression would extend the water-covered areas, draw water away from the areas less depressed, and this water would add its weight to the previous excess, and so by progressive and cumulative action develop the great water areas and differentiate them from the chief land areas. The tendency would always be toward the more complete unification of the land and water areas respectiveh\ So long as the earth continued to grow appreciably by accession, the water areas should continue to grow larger and deeper and the land areas narrower and higher, so far as this one process is con- cerned. The wash from the land tended to build its borders out into the water basins and other influences modified the results, but the deepening and spreading of the water basins is believed to have been a markedh' dominant process during the earth's growth. After FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 247 growth ceased and modern processes became dominant a more nearly balanced relation of sea and land is thought to have ensued, with a closer approximation to constancy. The amount of the original depression of the areas occupied by the water is assumed to have been slight, and, we prefer to think, accidental, so to speak. There may have been systematic causes that determined the relative depression of certain broad tracts and the relative elevation of others, such as some sy.stematic difference in the infall, or some rotational change, or some inherent tendency to shrinking in certain particular ways, as, for example, that held by advocates of a tetrahedral earth, but it is not clear that the actual distribution of depressions and elevations points to such systematic agencies. The elevated and depressed tracts of the moon seem to have a distribution quite unlike those of the earth ; and those of Mars, if the lighter and darker areas are correctly interpreted as elevated and depressed tracts, are quite different from those of either earth or moon. Each seems to be a law unto itself, if such irregular distributions can be styled laws at all. My hypothesis requires nothing more than the inevitable slight differences of growth, of volcanic activity, of compression, and their joint effects. Start- ing with only such slight differences as were sufficient to give pre- ponderance in large tracts in favor of the water or of the land, the selective and self-propagating nature of the process may have done the rest. If it be assumed that the earth's growing hydrosphere appeared at the surface when our planet had attained the mass of Mars, whose radius is about 2,100 miles, the subsequent growth would form a shell about 1,900 miles thick. It is not altogether certain that Mars bears water bodies on its surface ; but the areas of greenish shade environed by a surface generally ruddy, the polar white caps (" snow caps ' ' ) that come and go with the seasons, and the apparent occa- sional presence of clouds, not to appeal to the evidence of aqueous absorption lines in the spectrum reported bj^ some good observers, but unconfirmed by others, lend some support to the opinion that water is present, though perhaps not in the form of definite water bodies. It has been inferred from the almost complete, and sometimes total, disappearance of the polar white caps in summer, and from other phenomena, that the climate of Mars is phenomenally mild, consider- ing its distance from the sun. This has been regarded as all the more puzzling because of the scantiness of the Martian atmosphere, but is what might be expected if Mars' atmosphere is like that 248 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. assigned the earth at a similar size, i. c. , composed largel}- of the heat-absorbing carbon dioxide. Without attempting to fix the precise stage, it is not unreasonable to assume that surface waters had begun their accumulation upon the earth's exterior while yet it la}^ 1,500 to 1,800 miles below the present surface. The present difference between the radii of the oceanic basins and the radii of the continental platforms is scarcely 3 miles, on the average ; so that if the continental segments be assumed to be in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium with the oceanic segments today, as seems highly probable, the selective weathering process brought about a difference in depression of only I mile in 500 or 600 miles, or about one-fifth of i per cent. We appear, therefore, to be laying no heavier burden upon weather- ing than it is competent to bear. It might well be thought to do much more, but the process of weathering is slow, and as new ma- terial was constantly falling in and burjdng the old, partial altera- tion was all that could take place ; and, besides, a part of the basic material leached from the surface was redeposited beneath the ground water of the land and in landlocked basins and was not lost to the continental segments. Not only is the evolution of the great ab^-smal basins and of the continental platforms thus assigned to a very simple and inevitable process, but there is therein laid the foundation for subsequent de- formation of the abysmal and continental type. There is no direct evidence as to the time or the method of the introduction of life upon the earth. The earliest legible record of life in the form of fossils bears evidences of great advances in evolu- tion along many divergent lines. The inference is therefore im- perative that the initial forms of life had been introduced long before, or else that an evolution quite out of harmony with that which succeeded took place in the unknown interval antecedent to the record. Whence the life was introduced is also quite unknown. The speculation that it might have been brought to the earth from some other celestial body by a fragment in the form of a meteorite is merely a refuge from supposed geological, biological, and philo- sophical difficulties — a merely temporary refuge in the face of pro- digious improbabilities, for it only throws back the problem of life genesis without solving it. There is nothing in known meteorites save, perhaps, the existence of hydrocarbons equally assignable to inorganic .sources, to indicate that they came from worlds with at- mospheres and hydro.spheres suited to maintain such life as the FUNDAMENTAI, PROBLEMS OF GP:oLOGY. 249 problem presents. On the contrary, there is the best of grounds for believing that meteorites came from bodies in which the essen- tial conditions of life were wanting; for, besides the absence of free oxygen and water, there is an absence of the products assignable to weathering and to those rock changes that spring from the presence of an atmosphere and h^^drosphere. These embrace a large portion of all known rocks in the outer part of the earth, such as are char- acterized by quartz, orthoclase, the acid plagioclases, the micas, the amphiboles, as well as the sedimentary rocks. The absence of these in the meteorites is peculiarly significant because of their abundance in the earth. The hypothesis of the foreign importation of life encounters a special difficulty under the planetesimal hypothesis, in that the planets were all forming at the same time. Under the other hypotheses the outer planets may have formed earlier than the inner ones, and an earlier evolution of life may have taken place in one of the older planets, whence a transference to the earth is barely conceivable. Under the accretion hypothesis even this is scarcely a tenable refuge, and transfer from some other stellar system is the only obvious recoiirse. The planetesimal hypothesis affords an undetermined lapse of time between the stage when conditions congenial to life were first possi- ble and the stage when the first fairh^ legible record was made in the Cambrian period. To this unmeasured period the whole pre-record evolution of life, whatever be its method, may be referred, with a strong presumption that the time was ample and that there is no occasion for an evasion of the profound problem of life genesis by referring it to some distant and unknown body ; nor is the problem vexed by duress of severe time limits. A theoretical scantiness of time for a prolonged evolution previous to the Cambrian period has been deduced from a molten earth, but this does not apply to the planetesimal hypothesis. The supposed limitation of the sun's thermal endurance would apply if the arguments could be trusted, but their foundation has been cut away by recent discoveries. It is not the least of the virtues of the planetesimal hypothesis that it opens the way to a study of the problem of the genesis and early evolution of life free from the duress of excessive time limits and of other theoretical ham- perings, and leaves the solution to be sought untrammeled, except by the conditions inherent in the problem itself, which are surely grave enough. It is assumed that the conditions on which life is now dependent were prerequisites to its introduction. As already indicated, an 250 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. atmosphere and hydrosphere sufficient to sustain life may have been acquired when the earth was about the size of Mars, or one-tenth grown. If, to be conservative, a preliminar>^ growth of twice this amount be allowed, there still remains between this and the Cam- brian record the growth of four-fifths of the mass of the earth. So far, therefore, as atmosphere and hydrosphere are concerned, life may have been introduced early in the history of the earth, and may have had a vast interval for development previous to the earliest legible record. There is another essential condition — a sufficiency, but not an excess, of heat and light. If the formation of the parent nebula involved only the outshooting of a small fraction of the ancestral sun, the solar supply of heat and light may not have been so seri- ously disturbed as to have fatally affected its availability to furnish what was necessar}^ for life at any stage of the earth's growth. The planetesimals between the earth and the sun during the early stages, before they were much swept up by the inner planets, may have screened off some appreciable part of the sun's heat and light, but the ratio of nebular matter to space was probably too small to render this loss critical. So long as the nebula itself remained luminous the nebular light compensated in greater or less degree for the solar light cut off, but perhaps not for the heat. The nebulous surround- ings of the growing earth must have somewhat reduced the loss of heat by radiation into space, and so have made some compensation. There was, however, a terrestrial source of heat and light of crit- ical importance, namely, that arising from the infall of the planet- esimals. If this infall were at a rate sufficient to heat the surface of the earth above ioo°C., life of the present types would have been prohibited. The present stage of the inquiry does not permit any very confident opinion as to whether this excess was reached or not. Leaving this question open, it is to be noted that if, at the stage when first an atmosphere and hydrosphere could be held, the infall of planetesimals was so rapid as to heat the surface to a prohibitive temperature, the rate of infall must almost certainly have declined as the number of planetesimals in the earth's feeding zone was dimin- ished ; so that, long before the supply was exhausted and growth ceased, the rate must inevitably have fallen below the prohibitive limit. If, therefore, the earth were too hot for life when one-fifth grown, its temperature might have become suitably mild when one- fourth, one-third, one-half, or three-fourths grown. Growth after this permissive stage was reached would be slow, and the period re- quired for its completion would still be long. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 25 1 In the early stages the danger seems to be all on the side of too great heat. Even if the sun's heat were much less than now, the heat of planetesimal infall would probably make up the deficiency and more. The infall would continue to be a source of home supply so long as the accretion continued, declining as the supplj^ of planetesimals diminished. This diminution of the supply cleared the space between the earth and the sun, and gradually brought the sun into full function. There would, therefore, be a gradual passage from the partial de- pendence on the home supply of heat and light to complete depend- ence on the solar suppl}'. There is little ground for apprehension that the infalling planetesimals would be seriously dangerous to the early forms of life, for in the first place the atmosphere must have been then, as now, an effective cushion, checking the speed of the planetesimals and partially dissipating them, and, in the second place, the early organisms were probably all aquatic and were further pro- tected by their water covering. The introduction of organic activity is presumed to have brought into play the well-known attendant chemical processes. The changes in the composition of the atmosphere are especially important. It has been indicated that the primitive atmosphere probably contained a preponderance of carbon dioxide, and a little later carried all the water-vapor it could hold under the prevailing temperatures, while the amount of nitrogen was not improbably low, and that of oxygen uncertain. If only there were oxygen enough to serve the functions of plant life at the outset, the existing large content of oxygen could probably all arise from subsequent plant action. It is merely neces- sary, therefore, to assume (i) that the carbon dioxide was not too abundant to prohibit the development of the early plants ; (2) that the oxygen was sufficient for their vital processes; and (3) that the nitrogen was much less abundant than now, to give a good working basis for the evolution of the present very different atmosphere. Assuming that green (photogenetic) plants were first introduced, and that until some time later there were no animals or predaceous plants which decomposed the carbon compounds produced by the green plants, the first effect of the plant life on the atmosphere would be to reduce its carbon dioxide and increase its free ox5'gen. If there were no check or offset to this process, a relatively short time would suffice for the conversion of an atmosphere of dominant carbon dioxide to one of dominant oxygen. If the present vegeta- tion can remove the present content of carbon dioxide in 100 years, as estimated, an amount of carbon dioxide as great as the whole 252 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. atmosphere of to-day might be changed to oxygen in about 300,000 years by an equally active vegetation. The early plant action may have been much less efficient than that of to-day, and the requisite period might be correspondingly lengthened, but it might still be geologically short. Besides, the early atmosphere, by hypothesis, was much less abundant than the present one and probably much more active in the carbonation of rocks. It is assumed that life requiring a high content of oxygen did not appear until after the composition of the atmosphere had been suit- ably changed in this way. After oxygen-consuming, carbon-dioxide- freeing organisms came into existence the reciprocal action of the two classes of life tended to maintain an equilibrium, though not an equalit}^, between the oxygen and the carbon dioxide in the air. At the same time the carbon dioxide was continually uniting with the rock substance of the outer part of the earth, as it does now, and was thus being removed from the atmosphere. The same is true of the oxygen ; but probably then, as now, oxidation was less active and prevalent than carbonation, and so the combined result of plant life and of inorganic action was to bring down the content of carbon dioxide to a subordinate place. The nitrogen, being relatively inert, gradually accumulated, and has now become much the most abundant constituent. So soon as plants and animals had come into action, all the great factors potential in the earth's physical evolution were in play. By hypothesis, volcanic action only began some time after the beginning of the earth's growth, for it was delayed (i) by the lack of sufficient compression in the central parts to give the requisite heat, and (2) by the time required for this central heat to move out to zones of less pressure, where it would suffice to melt the more fusible constituents. But, once begun, it is supposed to have grad- ually increased in actual and in relative importance until it reached its climax. This obviously came much later than the climax of growth, for it was dependent on the growth to give the increased compression from which arose the central heat on which the vulcanism depended. And so, owing to the .sources of delay just cited, the maximum of volcanic action must have lagged much behind the accession of the material which remotely actuated it. It is there- fore inferred that vulcanism continued to increase in activity long after growth had entered on its decline, and that there was an important period in which the dominant activity was volcanic. It is conceived that in the late stages of the earth's growth the FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 253 amount of material poured out on the surface in molten form or introduced into the outer parts of the earth from below was very- much greater than the accessions from without. Still later, these declining accessions were so overwhelmed by the igneous extrusions that they became indistinguishable contributions. In this stage, too, it is held that the modifications wrought by the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and organic life were also quite subordinate to the volcanic contributions. Disintegration is assumed to have gone little farther, usually, than to partially reduce rocks of the granitoid type to arkoses, and those of the basic type to wackes. Rather rarely, it is believed, was much pure quartzose sand, aluminous clay, or similar well-decomposed residuary materials accumulated ; rarely, also, much carbonaceous shale. Arkoses and wackes, when meta- morphosed later, took on such a similitude to igneous rocks as to be more or less unidentifiable. The formations of this period of volcanic dominance, with very subordinate clastic accompaniment, are regarded as constituting the Archean complex, though perhaps only the later portions of the great volcanic series are represented by the known Archean. I have studied at considerable length the problem of deformation of the earth under the several hypotheses of its origin and the conditions sequent thereon. The most difficult feature is to bring into working harmony the agencies that produce lateral thrust of the outer crust as demonstrated in the extensive folding and reverse faulting, on the one hand, and the vertical movements exemplified in plateaus and normal faulting on the other. Current views are attended by grave difficulties when an attempt is made to reduce them to quantitative terms. I have developed what appears at present a very promising line of solution, but I prefer to work upon it somewhat further before reporting upon it. I desire to direct attention to the fact, frequently indicated by allu- sions in the preceding statement, that further deplo3'ment, and par- ticularly further testing of the hypotheses and sub-hypotheses, all along the line, are definitely contemplated. While they have been constructed with some hope that they may be in the line of the ulte- rior truth, it is felt that their only assured value lies in the aid they may render in the development of tributary investigations, and in assembling and interpreting the varied data from the multitude of sources from which so complex a problem must necessarily make drafts. The accompanying communication of Dr. Moultou indicates in particular that a severe testing of our own hj-potheses, as well as those of others, is a part of our working scheme. 254 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. In my last report mention is made of the preliminar>^ stages of an inquiry relative to changes in the form of the earth growing out of hypothetical changes in the rate of rotation due to tidal action. The inquiry as originally planned could easily have been carried out, as Professor Slichter had contributed the necessary computations and it only remained for me to add the geological discussion. This would, however, onl)' have introduced a conflict between geological deduc- tions and the well-known tidal deductions of G. H. Darwin. It seemed therefore desirable that the influence of tidal attraction should be recomputed on the assumption of a rigid earth instead of a viscous one, not only, but on the assumption of increasing rigidity toward the center — an assumption that seems to be required by several recent lines of evidence relating to the state of the earth's interior. It seemed also desirable that the assumption should involve high elas- ticity of form, which seems also to be indicated by the rates of trans- mission of transverse seismic oscillations through the deeper parts of the earth. I have not as yet been able to arrange for this rather laborious work, ownng to the engagement of the available parties competent to undertake it. I append herewith statements of the collaborative work of Doctors Moulton, IvUnn, and Stieglitz, the general nature of which was outlined in my last report. Respectfully submitted. T. C. Chambkrlin. Chicago, September ^o, igo^. The Work of Dr. Stieglitz. Chicago, October 26, 1904. Dear Professor Chamberlin : I beg to report that I have made considerable progress on the problem of possible relation of the de- posits of pure gypsum beds, free from calcium carbonate, to the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere and the climate at the period when the deposits were laid down ; but I think it is advisable to pursue the subject further before reporting any specific results. Yours respectfully, Juuus Stieglitz. fundamental problems of geology. 255 The Work of Dr. Moulton. Chicago, September 2g, igo^. Dear Professor Chamberlin : I regret that unforeseen con- ditions have prevented me from working more than two months on the nebular hypothesis in the last year. The prospects now are that I shall be able to carr>' out the work of the exhaustive critical re- view without further serious interruption. It has seemed to me essential to make a careful preliminary dis- cussion before taking up the work professedly referring directly to the nebular hypothesis. These preliminary discussions are on (a) the different kinds of hj'potheses and their uses, {b) the observa- tional data pertinent to the inquiry, and (f) the laws which have been derived from the data. Then will follow the discussion of the work done on the nebular hypothesis. The first epoch reaches up to Laplace, the second consists of Laplace and the commentators on his work, including the modifications introduced by the theory of the conservation of energy ; the third starts with Darwin's work on tidal evolution and reaches to our work in 1900. (a) Different Kinds of Hypotheses and Their Uses. — In this I have attempted, in the first place, to analj^ze hypotheses with respect to the character of their origin and relation to observational data. In the second place, I have attempted to form an estimate of the value of these various sorts of hypotheses in scientific work. I am firmly convinced that this work is of value apart from the later discussions, and that it is particularly valuable in connection with the estimates of the work done on the nebular hypothesis by the various writers. (^) Observational Data. — This and the next topic are almost uni- versally largely mixed. They are purposely sharply separated here, for the observational data are a permanent acquisition, while the laws are hypotheses derived from them. Since the final theory, the nebular hypothesis, is in question, the preliminary hypotheses or laws can not be passed over lightly. {_€) Scientific Laws. — This topic and the preceding have led me into every field of physical science. The laws have been (and are being) analyzed on the basis of {a) and their probable validity ex- amined. This task of looking critically at the foundations of all laws upon which the nebular hypothesis is based is very heavy. The preliminary discussions {a) and {b) are practically complete. The work on (' resulting from the contraction to its present condition of an earth originally homogeneous and having the density of the present surface rock. It was thought that this would represent fairly the thermal effects that would arise from the formation of the earth by aggregation. There is not the slight- est difficulty in determining the total amount of that energy for any assigned law of density ; but the question of its localization in the mass antecedent to its transfer, by conduction or by extrusion through volcanic processes, can not be answered without recourse to hypothesis as to the thermodynamic properties of the substance at the high temperatures and pressures met with. The resijlts which I have already furnished you refer to the energy generated by what might be called static compression, each portion of the mass being conceived as heated by local compression from the surface density to its present density, the work done being assumed to produce a proportionate rise of temperature. The form of the original tem- perature curve corresponding to this and the main features of the FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 257 subsequent cooling were determined, on several assumptions as to conductivity and internal density. I have not thought it worth while to regard the specific heat as other than constant, because of the uncertainty attending (i) the application of Fourier's equations at such high temperatures, and (2) the very definition of tempera- ture under these conditions. This much is practically read}-- for publication, except the round- ing'off of the mode of presentation. I think it would hardly pay to attempt more in this direction just now, and I plan to offer this, with a critique of the assumptions, as part i of the paper to be sent in shortly. The energy so generated is, however, not the entire amount of gravitational energy, though perhaps in any ordinary case the major portion. The reason is that — assuming, as we have done, that the pressure depends only on the density — a dynamic equilibrium is possible only in the final state of the mass ; consequently the pas- sage from the homogeneous to the compressed condition must be accompanied by the generation, in addition to the strictly compres- sional energy, of the kinetic energy of a more or less oscillatory motion, which would be transformed to heat by the internal fric- tion due to the viscosity of the mass. The problem of determining how this portion of the energy is localized is a very puzzling one. The exact determination of every phase of this motion is hardly to be expected, since even the analogous problem for a globe of perfect gas leads to equations of whose solution practically nothing is known. However, the features of the solution in certain analo- gous, though much simpler, cases of damped acoustic and electro- magnetic vibrations suggest that the ' ' asymptotic ' ' case for infinite coefficient of viscosity can be made more easily accessible, and this result would probably be useful, since the viscosity of lava is actu- ally so great. I am hopeful of success in this direction, but have nothing complete to offer yet. The theory needs to be completed in another respect before I can be satisfied with it. The contraction due to cooling makes the gen- eration of heat proceed parallel with its conduction. On account of the small coefficient of expansion, the heat thus added is negligible in a small bod}-, but becomes an important portion of the whole in a mass as large as the earth. Hence to follow the process strictl}^ it would be necessary to consider the conduction and contraction as simultaneous, following the initial compression. The difficulties in the way here are serious. 258 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. I have therefore begun a search for assumptions as to the thermo- dynamic properties of lava, which would be consistent with the data at hand relative to surface rock, and to follow out the plan carried through by Ritter for gases and vapors, determining the ' ' adi- abatic condition line " and the law of contraction and radiation, assuming the adiabatic state maintained b}^ an appropriate law of conduction. If the law of conduction so determined should prove plausible, and the rate of surface loss agree fairly well with observa- tion, this would furnish a complete solution of a case perhaps not remote from the actual, and the direction of departure from it would give at least qualitative information of value. This is the only avenue of approach I see just now. It is impossible to satisfy the condi- tions by assuming a coefficient of expansion so small that even for the earth the cooling is practically independent of the contraction, for the thermodynamic law of entropy shows that part of the energy from the gravitational source must take the form of internal potential energy, not temperature, and the smaller the coefficient of expan- sion, the larger this portion is. For a fictitious substance with zero coefficient of expansion, there would be no rise of temperature at all. This striking result from the law of reciprocity only shows again what a great difference there is between the small masses of the lab- oratory and the cosmic masses. It is fair to say that these criticisms are not peculiar to our point of view, but apply with equal force to everything which I have seen on the secular cooling of the earth. Very truly yours, Arthur C. Lunn. PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEM- PERATURES. On November 19, 1902, 1 submitted to the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution a memorial proposing an investigation of subterranean temperature gradient by means of a deep boring in phitonic rock. On December 1 1, 1903, I was notified that an appropriation of $1 ,000 had been made by the Institution for the expense of preHminary work and the preparation of plans, and was requested to take general charge of the preparations of plans. I now have the honor to submit the following report of progress : (i) Mr. F. H. Newell, Hydrographer of the United States Geo- logical Survey, has at my request considered the question of cost, securing from establishments engaged in the manufacture of well- drilling machinery estimates of the expense of putting down borings to great depths. These estimates indicate that the cost of a boring in granite to the depth of 10,000 feet would be very large — so large as to be prohibitory. The Sullivan Machinery Company estimates the cost of a boring to the depth of 6,000 feet at $110,000, and is willing to enter into a contract on the basis of that estimate. Esti- mate for a 6,000-foot boring has been requested from another re- sponsible company, but has not yet been received. If the general plan is approved by the Institution, bids will be solicited from parties making a business of sinking wells under contract. (2) I have investigated the question of a suitable site (a) by form- ulating the conditions to be satisfied, (d) by a series of inquiries and consultations with geologists familiar with the structure of various districts east of the Great Plains, (c) by a personal visit to the dis- trict which appeared from description most likely to aflford a satis- factory site. As a result of this investigation I beg to report that the Ivithonia district, Georgia, both appears preferable to all other districts of which I have secured information and does in fact well satisfy the conditions requisite for a successful boring. No effort was made to choose a precise spot, but the natural conditions are there favorable over so large an area that the selection of a partic- ular spot can be made in view of local economic conditions. (3) By favor of the Director of the United States Geological Sur- vey, the cooperation of Mr. Newell and other members of the Survey has been secured without expense to the Carnegie Institution, and the only draft thus far made on the allotted fund has been for the 259 26o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, expense of my trip to Georgia— $80.69. It is anticipated that fur- ther draft will be made when plans for boring have been so fully developed that they may be advantageously submitted to an engi- neering expert. (4) In view of the fact that a site has been found at which the essential natural conditions are realized, and of the further fact that an experienced and responsible well-boring company has such con- fidence in the feasibility of a 6,000-foot hole as to be willing to guar- antee its completion, I recommend that the making of a deep boring be undertaken by the Carnegie Institution. (5) I recommend further that the sum of $65,000 be allotted, of which $10,000 be available in the calendar year 1905, and $27,500 in each of the two succeeding years. This recommendation does not imply the adoption of the contract plan, the question of business method being left open. (6) I recommend that the control and supervision of the work be intrusted to a committee of three persons, one of whom shall be a physicist, one a geologist, and one a man practically familiar with boring operations. (7) I submit herewith a discussion of the value to science of the proposed boring, of the considerations affecting the determination of a suitable site, and of the local conditions of the Lithonia district. Respectfully submitted. G. K. GlLrBERT. Washington, D. C, September 28, jgo^. PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 26 1 VALUE AND FEASIBILITY OF A DETERMINATION OF SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURE GRADIENT BY MEANS OF A DEEP BORING. By G. K. Gilbert. SCIENTIFIC NEED OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE NORMAL GRAIHENT. Theories of the origin of the earth are intimately related to theories of the constitution and condition of its interior. In the field of geophysics there is probably no problem which does not involve the distribution of internal heat. Direct obser\'ation of the nucleus being impossible, inference is depended on. and inferences, so far as they are quantitative, hav^e been and perhaps can be based only on obser^'^a- tion of temperature gradient near the surface. For the purpose of testing theories as to the origin of internal heat, it is important to know not only the temperature gradient in the accessible portion of the crust, but also the variation of gradient with depth. If the relations of cru.st to nucleus have existed so long that the distribu- tion of heat has become systematic, and the heat discharged at the surface is derived from all parts of the sphere, then the gradient in the accessible zone near the surface should be sensibly uniform. If the heat flowing toward the surface is and has been derived from tidal work performed in a subcrustal zone, then also the observed gradient near the surface should be uniform. But if, as assumed by Kelvin and King, the heat of the earth received its general distribu- tion through convection during an initial molten condition, and surface cooling has been in progress only a few million years, then the gradient in the upper portion of the crust should diminish downward. NEED OF A NEW DETERMINATION. Temperature gradients obser^j^ed in mines and in wells and other borings present a wide range, and the mean derived from them would probably be found to have a large probable error. But even if its probable error were small, the mean could not claim high pre- cision, because most of the observations heretofore made have been subject to unfavorable conditions. Deep mines exist because of geologic disturbances involving either volcanism or diastrophism, and in either case calculated to disturb for a long time the normal distribution of heat. They exist also because of lack of uniformit)' of the rocks, and in varied rocks there are usually variations of gradient dependent on variations of conductivity. So there is 262 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. always a presumption that the gradients observed in mines are ab- normal or abnormally varied. Artesian wells are made in order to utilize the subterranean circulation of water, and that circulation involves the convection of heat, whereby the normal gradient is necessarily disturbed. Oil-wells and gas-wells can be successful only in regions where the strata encountered at different depths are of diverse character, and the temperature gradient theoretically changes in passing from rock of one character to rock of another. The successful wells have their normal temperatures disturbed by the expansion of gas ; the unsuccessful usually penetrate zones of water circulation. As these three categories include practically all the deep openings which have been made in the earth, it is evident that the combination of their data yields no trustworthy index of the normal downward increase of temperature. The arithmetic mean of all their results has less authority than a single determination made under proper conditions. The ideal determination is to be obtained by boring in homogeneous rock not recently subject to disturbances calculated to modify its heat distribution. And such rock will not be exploited in intelligent search for any economic material. The determination which shall be of service to the stu dent of geophysics must be made by a boring planned and executed for the special purpose. Special emphasis may be given to the fact that all deep mines and all deep borings heretofore made have penetrated varying instead of uniform material. They have, therefore, presumptively encoun- tered changes in temperature gradient arising from differences in material, and as it is not practicable to separate such variations of gradient from the variations dependent merely on depth, the latter variations can not be deduced from records now in existence. They can be afforded only by a deep boring in homogeneous material. CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED IN THE SELECTION OF A SITE FOR A BORING. Uniformity of Rock Character. — The temperature gradient within the earth's crust, or the temperature change per unit of vertical distance, varies locally with the conductivity of the material (more strictly, with the diffusivity, which is a function of the conductivity and the specific heat). It may be subject also to other variation, but the discussion of other sources of variation is practically impos- sible if their effects are complicated with those arising from diver- sity of rock character. It is conceivable that the thermal record of PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 263 a boring traversing a series of diverse rocks might be corrected for the conductivities of the several rocks, but the determination of subterranean conductivities is a matter of such difficulty that a trust- worthy correction can not be applied, and the difficulty can be met only by avoiding the necessity for correction. The first condition, therefore, to be satisfied in the selection of a locality for a boring is that the rock be of uniform character for the whole depth of the boring. Co7itbudty of Rock. — The disturbing factor which impairs most records of subterranean temperature is subterranean circulation of water. There are few districts of sedimentary rock exempt from subterranean circulation. Descending currents entering regions of higher temperature receive heat from the rocks they traverse, and this heat is carried to the surface by ascending currents. Thus con- vection partly replaces conduction as a conveyor of heat, and the conditions are rendered unfavorable for the development of the nor- mal temperature gradient. As circulation is promoted by all cracks and other partings of the rock, as well as by porosity, it is important that districts where these occur be avoided. The second condition to be satisfied in the selection of a site for a boring is that the rock be continuous, or massive, and impervious. Topography of the Surface. — Every modification of the earth's sur- face causes a modification of the subjacent isogeotherms, and if the change is rapid it causes a temporary irregularity in the isogeotherms near the surface. If the result of the topographic change is a plain, the isogeotherms eventually become parallel planes with regular in- tervals ; but if the result of the topographic change is a surface of bold relief, the isogeotherms tend toward an adjusted distribution which reflects the topographic irregularities. From these considerations arise two conditions to be taken into account in the selection of a place for boring. It should be a plain or surface of low relief, and the plain should be one which has not received a heavy deposit during the later geologic periods. Stability of Surface Condition. — The temperature of the surface of the ground is ordinarily determined by the mean annual temperature of the air. The temperature of the bed of the ocean is similarly de- termined by the temperature of the water ; and the temperature beneath a glacier is determined by the basal temperature of the ice, which is approximately 0° C. These surface temperatures are the initial or control temperatures to which the isogeotherms conform. If they are changed, a readjustment of isogeotherms is at once instituted, and during the period of readjustment the spacing of isogeotherms, or 264 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. the arrangement of gradients, is abnormal. Usually the temperature of a coastal plain is not the same as the temperature of the adjacent sea bottom, so that a submergence or an emergence of a locality cre- ates a disturbance of isogeotherms. Similarly, the creation of an ice- sheet and its removal cause changes of the surface temperature and derangements of the isogeotherms. Outside the regions of actual Pleistocene glaciatiou there were Pleistocene changes of climate, by which the isogeotherms must have been deranged. These changes were probably greatest in high latitudes and less in low latitudes. The resulting conditions to be satisfied in the selection of a site for boring are : (i) That it shall have experienced no change in later geologic periods from marine to land conditions, (2) that it shall not hav^e been covered by Pleistocene glaciers, and (3) that it be in low latitude rather than high. Relation to Volcanism. — The movements of lavas, their intrusion among other rocks, and their extrusion at the surface effect great changes in the distribution of subterranean heat, and create disturb- ances in the regularity of isogeotherms which are very slowly effaced. The resulting condition for the selection of a site is that it be not near a locus of volcanism in an}^ of the later geologic periods. Relation to Diastrophism. — Orogenic disturbances, or those result- ing in the flexure and faulting of rocks, not only stimulate subter- ranean circulation, but produce local concentrations of heat as the product of mechanical and chemical work. The thermal irregulari- ties thus instituted disappear very slowly. The resulting condition for the selection of a site is that it be in a region not subject to oro- genic disturbance in any of the later geologic periods. THE SELECTION OF A LOCALITY. In the practical search for a locality suited for the proposed deep boring it seemed proper to restrict attention to the territory of the United States, and in the application of the criteria enumerated above I soon reduced the field of inquiry to narrow limits. The condition that the rock penetrated should be of uniform composition and of massive character barred all regions occupied by sedimentary formations, for these are everywhere more or less heterogeneous, and in nearly all localities admit the passage of circulating waters. The only large bodies of rock whose uniformity is reasonably assured are plutonic, and attention was therefore limited to the large batholiths. In the Cordilleran region most of the mountain ranges are young and are unfitted for the purpose, both because the temperature di.s- PI.ANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 265 turbances created by their uplift can not be assumed to have disap- peared and because their topographic ruggedness impHes irregularity of isogeotherms. New England and the region of the Great L,akes are unfitted because they were covered by the Pleistocene ice-sheet. Attention was therefore restricted to the batholiths of the Southern States. As to these I sought information from my colleagues on the Geological Survey, finding the available information so full that I was able to exclude some because associated with bold topography, others because lacking uniformity of composition, and others because traversed by joints. Of the localities not thus excluded the most favorable appeared to be the Lithonia granite district in Georgia. Of this I made a personal examination, and as it seemed peculiarly favorable to the purpose, no other examinations were made. THE LITHONIA DISTRICT. In its general topographic character the Lithonia district is a plain. The stream valleys, for the most part open, are excavated to depths of 50 to 150 feet. A few rounded bosses of granite project from 50 to 150 feet above the plain. The granite is surrounded and in part overlain by schists, which appear to have originally constituted the walls and cover of the batholithic chamber. The continuity of the granite mass from outcrop to outcrop is inferred from the close lithologic similarity found at all the outcrops. This similarity includes not only composition, but a peculiar and unusual structure, the granite having an imperfect schistosity, the planes of which are everywhere contorted. It is therefore called by the State Geological Survey contorted granite-gneiss. The rock is massive. Only a few joints were observed, and these appeared to be occupied by thin veins, and thereby sealed, so as not to affect materially the continuity of the rock. The partings utilized in quarrying are parallel to the surface and are usually not natural, but created by blasting. They indicate a tendency toward exfoliation, which is one of the characters of massive granite. In recent studies in the Sierra Nevada I have found the tendency to develop partings par- allel to the surface characteristic of massive rocks and absent from rocks traversed by systems of joints. The extent of the granite body is not less than 10 miles in one direction bj' 3 miles or more in the transverse direction. Uniformity of character through such an area affords reasonable presumption that uniformity will be found in the vertical direction to such 266 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. depths as are obtainable by the driller. The age of the batholith is not definitely known, but it is believed by students of Georgia geology to be probably pre-Paleozoic, and certainly not later than early Paleozoic.* Of the later geologic history all that is demon- strated by the features of the locality is profound degradation, re- sulting in the development of a broad peneplain. Nothing is known in the vicinity of later orogenic or volcanic events, and the Creta- ceous and Tertiary formations of the Coastal Plain are thought not to have covered this area. So far as is known, the region is one characterized by prolonged geologic quiet, and it has probably been exempt, as far as any locality which might have been selected in the United States, from physical and climatic accidents competent to disturb the arrangement of subterranean temperatures. Ecommic Conditions. — While the selection of the Lithonia district' for the proposed boring was made solely on considerations arising from the scientific demands, attention was also given while on the ground to economic considerations affecting the cost of the work. One of the essentials in the use of the diamond-drill is a good sup- ply of water. This can be readily secured in the final selection of the precise site of the boring. The district is crossed by a railroad, from which several spurs run to quarries, and a suitable site can be found near one of these lines. No serious problems are connected with the transportation of machinery and fuel. There is rail com- munication with the neighboring city of Atlanta. ACCESSORY INVESTIGATIONS. In the planning of the boring no other instrument has been con- sidered than the diamond-drill. The rock could probably be pene- trated by the churn-drill at less cost, but the churn-drill, by grinding the rock to sand, destroys its structure and makes it impossible to be assured of the uniformity of its lithologic character. The dia- mond drill, on the other hand, removing part of the rock in the form of a core, preserves a continuous record of the character of rock traversed. The core, moreover, permits the prosecution of other investigations in addition to the thermal. The strength and other physical properties of deeply buried granite are practically unknown, and the information which can be obtained as to these may prove of importance to geophysics. It is at least worthy of suggestion that the boring could also be utilized for the subterranean swinging of a specially constructed *Geol. Survey of Georgia, Bull. No. 9 A, 1902, p. 63. PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 267 pendulum, and the measurement of the earth's weight by means of a vertical pair of gravity determinations could thus be repeated. The homogeneity of the crust layer between the upper and lower stations and the representative character of the rock samples brought up as drill cores would be peculiarly favorable for the determination of the density of the crust layer. To give high precision to the determination of density it would be necessary to take account of the compression of the rock under stress of the superincumbent weight. Rock compression has not yet been measured in the laboratory, the matter being one of extreme diffi- culty, by reason of the deformation of both samples and testing apparatus when great pressures are applied ; but there is reason to think that valuable observations bearing on this point could be made within the boring at some stage of the work. It should be possible, by suitable automatic appliances, to measure that resilient elongation of the column of rock constituting a section of core which theoretic- ally takes place while the drill is separating it from the general mass. The importance to geophysics of experimental determinations of rock compression is generally recognized. PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. By L. a. Bauer and G. W. lyiTTi^EHAi.ES. October 3, 1904. I beg to submit herewith a project for a magnetic survey of the North Pacific, by Messrs. L. A. Bauer and G. W. Ivittlehales. Reference to this project was made in my letter of the 29th ultimo, requesting that the grant to the Department of International Research in Terrestrial Magnetism for the next year be $25,000. It will be noticed that the project does not call for a separate grant, but is instead a proposal as to the direction in which field work of the department could profitably and advantageously be taken up next year. Accompanying the project will be found letters from Captain Creak, formerly superintendent of the compass department of the British Admiralty, now retired, and from Superintendent Tittmann. Captain Creak took an important part in designing the British Antarctic ship The Discovery and in planning its magnetic work. Very respectfully, L. A. Bauer, Director. While the state of our knowledge of the distribution of the earth's magnetic forces over oceanic areas, owing to the paucity of precise data, is in general exceedingly unsatisfactory, this is especially true for that great body of water the Pacific Ocean, rapidl}^ developing in great commercial importance. Except for data from occasional expeditions and such as were acquired in wooden vessels a long time ago, the present magnetic charts used by the navigator over this region depend largely upon the observations on islands and along the coasts. Such land obser- vations, however, are rarely representative of the true values, because of prevalent local disturbances. It is therefore impossible to make any statement as to the correctness of the present charts. The demands of science, as well as those of commerce and navi- gation, require a systematic magnetic survey of this region under the most favorable conditions possible, and that the work be done 269 270 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. under the auspices of some recognized research institution in order to insure that the scientific aspects of the work receive their adequate recognition. It is believed that it will be best to undertake first a magnetic survey of the North Pacific Ocean, and a project is here accordingly outlined which, upon careful consideration and solicitation of expert opinion, is believed to be thoroughly feasible. The project permits of useful comprehensive results being immediately obtained, and is one which can be interrupted without any important waste of ante- cedent expense whenever circumstances may render a discontinuance or a modification of the original plan advisable. Upon the comple- tion of the survey of this region, which, in accordance with the plans, will not require more than three years, the survey of other oceanic areas may usefully be considered. The plan is, in brief, to charter a wood-built, non-magnetic sail- ing vessel of about 600 tons displacement, which, starting out in summer from San Francisco, shall pursue a clockwise spiral course embracing the entire North Pacific Ocean, as shown in red ink on the submitted Pilot Chart. The object of planning such a course is to gain continuous advantage throughout the survey of the dynam- ical agencies of the atmosphere and the ocean, in passing in suc- cession into each of the five-degree quadrangles into which the chart is -divided and in which observed values of the three magnetic elements need to be obtained. The seasonal shifting of the permanent centers of barometric pressure will cause a variation from month to month of the condi- tions of wind and current that are represented on this particular chart ; but if the departure from San Francisco be taken in the summer the chain of meteorological events will contribute toward the maximum progress over the course, passing thence along the west coast of America to the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands; thence across the Pacific, in latitude between two and three degrees north ; thence along the eastern side of the Philippine Archipelago and the Empire of Japan ; thence eastward in about latitude fifty-two degrees north ; thence to the latitude of San Francisco, and thence contin- uing through the series of areas bounded by parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude, each five degrees apart, lying next on the mid-ocean side of the circuit last made, and proceeding gradually and by successive circuits into the central region of the North Pacific. The total length of the course marked out is about 70,000 knots. However, as will be noticed, each of the first circuits practically closes PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 27 I at San Francisco ; so that, if it is found that the method pursued is not the best, the work can readily be terminated or modified. Each circuit is so planned as to contribute the maximum results with the highest efficiency. From letters received in response to inquirj' (two of the letters are appended) it would appear that the entire work of observation and reduction can be accomplished in three years. The cost per month of the field work, inclusive of all expenses and services, will approximate $1,500. Counting eight months of continuous service per annum, the total annual outlaj'^ would be about $12,000. This sum can be provided for out of the allotments for field-work available to the Department of International Research in Terrestrial Magnetism if the annual grant to this department be made $25,000, as per the original plan published in Year Book No. 2. The region it is proposed to survey fortunately contains magnetic observatories in requisite number and proper distribution for fur- nishing the necessar}' corrections to the observed magnetic elements to reduce them to a common epoch. Thus, continuous records of the magnetic variations required for this purpose will be available from the following stations : Sitka (Alaska) , Honolulu (Hawaiian Islands) , Manila (Philippines); Shanghai (China), Tokio (Japan). In addi- tion to these, it is possible that there may be at the time of the pro- posed magnetic survey magnetic observatories in the Samoan Islands, in Siberia, and in California or vicinity in position to lend efifective cooperation. Furthermore, the numerous ports and islands will furnish excel- lent opportunities for controlling instrumental constants and for ob- taining any additional variation data that may be needed. It should also be pointed out that the plan of the courses as mapped permits ready adjustment for closed areas of the observed quantities in accordance with the potential hypothesis, and it may even permit the testing of the accuracy of this assumption, though as regards the latter more can be .said at the end of a year's work. While it is not anticipated that any marked irregularities in the distribution of the earth's magnetism will manifest themselves over the deep waters of the Pacific, it may be confidently expected that in the neighborhood of the islands and along the coa.sts distortions and irregularities will reveal themselves. With the aid of the results of the detailed magnetic survey of the United States and Alaska, opportunity will therefore be afforded of studying the effect of the configuration of laud and water upon the distribution of the 19 272 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. magnetic forces. The first circuit, passing as it does along the American and Asiatic coasts, will yield especially interesting results in this respect. Thus, for example, along the Aleutian Islands marked local disturbances will be revealed. Reports are received frequently from mariners in this region regarding the unsatisfactory behavior of the compass ; it is therefore greatly to be desired that a magnetic survey of the waters in this region be made with all neces- sary detail. The letters appended will give further information regarding the plan, and will give evidence of the opinions held by those competent to judge. \Letter from Capt. E.. W. Creak to Dr. Bauer. ~\ q Hervey Road, Blackheath, London, S. E., August ji, igo4. My Dear Dr. Bauer : The North Pacific Ocean is, with the exception of the voyage of the Challenger, nearly a blank as regards magnetic observations, and I therefore think the magnetic survey you propose will be of great value. In view of a sailing ship being emploj^ed, the route marked out in the letter (of which you have sent me a copy) is, I think, well thought out as regards winds, but I would, if I could, have a larger ship than the one proposed, of 600 tons. However, all can be done in a vessel of 600 tons, if of the proper form — a fast clipper is not wanted, but rather a good, wholesome, steady ship in a seaway. There is one point which I may have mentioned once before, but will bear repetition. The position selected for the magnetic instru- ments should be entirely free, if possible, from any vertical force in the ship. This especially applies to a sailing ship, which under action of the sails is liable to a constantly varying angle of inclina- tion, and where the vertical force of the ship causes a constantly varying heeling error in the magnetic instruments. The absence of any vertical force in the ship renders the obser^^a- tion taken on board free from any reference to the shore as regards declination and inclination, the effects of horizontal disturbance, if of moderate amount, being easily accounted for by swinging at sea as opportunity affords. Ivastly, as to a similar close examination to that proposed for the North Pacific being subsequently carried out in the South Pacific, PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 273 I fully concur. I have evidence that the large secular change in the magnetic declination which has been going on for the last sixty years in the ocean area between New Zealand and Cape Horn (south of 30° S.) is still in progress and wants far more attention than has hitherto been accorded to it. Yours very truly, Ettrick W. Creak. [Formerly superintendent of the compass department, British Admiralty. Now retired.] \_Lcttcr front 0. H. Tittmann, Supermtendent U. S. Coast a7id Geodetic Survey, to Dr. Bauer. ~\ Washington, October i, igo^.. Dr. L. A. Bauer, Director Department of International Research in Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution. Dear Sir : Your note, submitting a plan for a magnetic survey of the North Pacific, together with letters from Mr. I^ittlehales and Captain Creak, is before me. There is no doubt in my mind that a survey for that purpose would result in obtaining data of great and permanent value, and that it should be undertaken. You have pointed out that the scheme of traversing the Pacific by a spiral route is one that can be interrupted at any time. Valuabk results are sure to be obtained in even a partial circuit, and therefore there is no danger of waste of funds through failure. My own estimate of the time required to cover the field in the manner proposed is three years. Yours truly, O. H, Tittmann. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. By Bailey Willis. Under Grant No. 72 and its continuation, No. 116, plans for geological research in eastern Asia were perfected and carried to completion during 1903- 1904. The original suggestions for this re- search were made by Mr. Walcott, with a special view to the inves- tigation of Cambrian faunas and search for fossils in pre-Cambrian rocks in localities which were indicated by the work of Baron von Richthofen. The research was not, however, limited to this spe- cific object, but was stated to have for its broader purpose the com- parative study of the geology of North America and Asia. In its execution the special investigation of the Cambrian faunas was given precedence, but work was extended to other branches of the science in the effort to accomplish the more general result in compara- tive geology. Mr. Arthur C. Spencer, to whom the grant was originally intrusted, was unable for personal reasons to carry out its provisions, and I was authorized in the spring of 1903 to proceed with the investigation. I selected as my associates Mr. Eliot Black- welder, paleontologist, and later Mr. R. H. Sargent, topographer. Mr. Black welder and I left the United States in July, 1903, and, proceeding by way of Europe and the vSiberian Railwa}^ arrived at Peking September 20. The months of October and November were spent in making topographical and geological surveys in the province of Shantung, in areas selected on account of the extensive exposures of fossiliferous Cambrian strata. Upon our return to Tientsin in December, we were joined by Mr. Sargent. During January and February surveys for topography and geology were executed along a route 250 miles in length, from Pao-ting fu, in the province of Chihli, westward to the Wutai-shan, the highest moun- tains in northern Shansi, and thence southward to Tai-yuan fu. The greater part of March was employed in perfecting the work accom- plished and in a journey of eighteen days from Tai-yuan fu, Shansi, to Hsi-an fu, Shensi. As this journey was necessarily made by a route previously traversed by Baron von Richthofen and other travelers, no surveys were made beyond the general observations consistent with rapid progress. From Hsi-an f u the party surveyed a route, which in great part had not previously been followed by foreigners, southward across the mountainous region which extends to and beyond the Yangtse. This part of the journey falls into 275 276 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. three sections : (i) the crossing of the Ch'iu-ling Mountains on foot, (2) the trip by boat down the Han river from Shih-chuan hsien to Hsing-an fu, and (3) the passing of the mountains between the Han and the Yangtse. The work was greatly delayed by continuous rains and high water during the first three weeks of April, but the party arrived at Wushan, on the Yangtse River, on June 6 and closed its field operations at Ichang, the head of steamboat naviga- tion, on June 8. At Shanghai the party disbanded on June 20, the Chinese interpreter and servants, who had rendered loyal service during nine months, returning to Tientsin, while the three Ameri- can members took passage for the United States. The success of the expedition is in large measure due to the assist- ance which it received on all hands from those who, privately or ofl&cially, were in a position to promote its objects. The ministers at Washington, of China, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia, and the American ministers abroad, at the respective capitals of these nations, gave the expedition their cordial indorsement. Mr. E. H. Conger, the American minister at Peking, rendered special service in introducing the purpose of the Carnegie Institution to the Imperial government, and in securing for the members of the expe- dition that ofiicial recognition which was essential to safety in the prosecution of surveys in the interior of China. Their excellencies, YuanShih Kai, viceroy of Chihli ; Chou Fu, governor of Shantung ; Chang Tsen Yang, governor of Shansi ; and Sheng Fan, governor of Shensi, exhibited an intelligent and broad-minded appreciation of the purpose to advance knowledge, and substantial aid was rendered by many magistrates with whom the scientists came in contact. Pleasant relations were consistently maintained with the many Chinese who gathered from every village to watch the strange opera- tions of surveying, and it is gratifying to record that at no time was there any dispute or difl&culty with the natives. I wish here particularly to express my appreciation of the service rendered science by my as.sociates, Mr. Blackwelder and Mr. Sargent, through their unflagging zeal and earnest scientific purpose ; their cordial cooperation at every step of the expedition and their self- restraint in dealing with the natural, but sometimes trying, curiosity of the natives contributed vitally to our success. Through the courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey, a plane- table, a telescopic alidade, a large camera, and accessory instruments were supplied without cost. A theodolite, the need of which was not appreciated in the initial plans, was loaned by Col. A. W. S. Wingate, of the British intelligence office at Tientsin. GEOLOGICAI. RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 277 Subsistence iu China includes two distinct causes of expense — that food which you provide and that which is provided for you. The party was supplied with staple articles of foreign food — flour, sugar, coffee, and a small amount of canned goods. In addition to these, Route, Sept. to June,l903-0< Mountains Fig. 6. — Route in Eastern China, September to June, 1903-1904. fresh meats and vegetables were purchased en route. Though thus prepared to live on its own resources, the party was often furnished with food and lodging at official cost, and for this it was proper to pay an amount estimated equivalent to the service rendered. Wine, 278 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. cigars, and candied fruits were taken as gifts to Chinese officials and for their entertainment. A proper use of these articles in return for courtesies received accords with the custom of the country. The cost of traveling in China has rarely been stated in such a manner as to afford a basis for estimate, and it is desirable to place on record the experience of the expedition for the benefit of those who may plan similar journeys. A list of daily expenses or rates of expense follows : Services : Head servant ; takes charge of other servants ; guarantees their service to you and your pay to them ; makes contracts ; purchases supplies ; may manage offi- cial ceremonies and interpret, etc. Per month, I40 to I50. No. I " boy " ; acts as substitute for head servant ; superintends arrangements at inns ; does the work of a valet ; takes care of property en route and at inns, etc. Per month, |i2 to |i6. Cook ; skilled in preparing European food. Per month, $12 to $\6. "Boys" and first-class coolies, employed as personal attendants to perform any required service or labor. Per month, I5.50 to $7.50. Kumshav^'S — /. e. , gifts — which custom requires in return for temporary serv- ice rendered by magistrates' servants, soldiers, and couriers, may be reckoned at rates of coolie pay, from 250 to 400 cash for each servant per day. In case the number of recipients is large and the service slight (an escort of welcome or farewell or the squad of retainers in attendance at a kung kuan during the noon stop), 150 to 200 cash apiece (sixteen cash to one cent gold). When travel- ing by the highway this charge varies from $2.50 to |4 per day ; in country districts away from officialdom it is much less. In case the service is continued some days or longer, there should be added a reasonable allowance for subsist- ence, including that of a horse in case of a mounted man. Subsistence : In the selection of foreign food to be carried on the journey individual taste will rule, but the temptation is to carry more than is needed. Coffee, sugar, baking-powder, salt, canned milk, and butter are the principal articles of food not obtainable except in the largest cities of the interior and the ports of China. A ration, including these articles, with flour, lard, dried fruits, sweet chocolate, preserves, and small quantity of canned goods, maybe reckoned at 35 cents per man per day. Twenty-five cents additional may be allowed for fresh meats, vegetables, and fruits. Fuel is usually limited to charcoal and kerosene, but these are both available everywhere except in remote mountain regions. Asphyxiation by charcoal gases is a not uncommon occurrence, on account of the general use of open braziers and the absence of ventilation. An outfit of oil-stoves and portable lamps is to be recommended for winter journeys. Chinese inns furnish rooms only ; all else is extra. The charge for a No. i room, with quarters for servants and cooking, is 50 to 75 cents per day. Transportation : Where horses, mules, or donkeys and their drivers are employed with carts, riding saddles, or pack saddles, i tael, about 65 cents, per day per animal is a usual charge. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 279 Wheelbarrow coolies in Shantung ; load, 150 to 200 pounds. Per day, Yz tael. Coolies who carry on their backs, on poles, or in "chairs" ; load, 60 to 85 pounds. Per day, ^ tael. Boats : River sampan, 3 boatmen and i passenger with baggage. Per day, 2 taels. Houseboat, 5 boatmen and several passengers. Per day, 6 taels. In all cases those employed "find" themselves, but a " kumshaw " is ex- pected at the end of the service. The members of the Carnegie expedition were received by the Chinese government as scholars representing a great institution of learning, and Chinese official conditions of living were thus imposed and complied with. With reference to safety and success, the selection of an interpreter was of first importance. The emploj^ment of a Chinese of mandarin rank was strongly urged by residents familiar with official life, but the conditions of travel for geological research were such as to make this arrangement difficult. The suggestion of an official to interpret was put aside, and a "boy," lyi-sau, w^as secured upon recommendation of Mr.W. S. Emens, of Tientsin, formerly judge of the criminal court under the provisional government of 1900. Li had been a detective under Mr. Emens, and afterward head boy to Generals Chaffee and Howard. He served throughout the expedition with rare zeal, ability, and honesty, proving himself equally competent in the daily exigencies of travel, in establishing favorable relations with the countr3^ people, and as master of ceremonies and interpreter during official visits. To his loyalty, tact, and efficiency much of the success of the expedition is due. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS. PREPARATORY. March 20, 1903. Letter of authority to proceed under Grant No. 72. May, June, July, 1903. Preparations : Examination of literature, purchase of equipment, establishment of diplomatic relations. July 27. Messrs. Willis and Blackwelder sailed for England. August 5 to September 5. In London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and St. Peters- burg, completing diplomatic relations and in conference with Germ;an and Russian scientists in regard to Asiatic problems. September 6 to 20. En route via Siberian Railway to Peking, with one-day at Tomsk for conference with Prof. A. W. Obrutchoff. September 21 to October 8. In Peking and Tientsin preparing for journey in Shantung. FIRST TRIP, SHANTUNG. October 9 to 12. En route on Grand Canal by launch, Tientsin to Techou. October 12 to 18. By cart, Techou to Ch'inan fu, 3 days, and 3 days at Ch'inan fu in conference with officials. 28o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, Oct. 19 to Nov. 4. Making topographical and geological survey of the Ch"ang-hsia district for stratigraphy' and paleontology of the Cambrian strata. Nov. 5 and 6. En route Ch'ang-hsia to Tai-an fu by horse and wheelbarrows. November 7 to 12. Geological reconnoissance of the Tai-shan pre-Cambrian rocks and physiographic relations of the mountain. November 13 to 15. En route Tai-an fu to Hsin-tai by horse and wheelbarrows. November 16 to December i. Making topographical and geological survey of the Hsin-tai district for stratigraphy and paleontology of the Cambrian strata and the relations of post-Carboniferous normal faulting to the present topography. December 1 to 4. En route with geological reconnoissance, Yen-chuang to Ch'en- ts'un, on foot, with wheelbarrows. December 5 to 11. En route by rail and steamer, via Tsing tau, to Tientsin. INTERIM. December 12 to 31. At Tientsin and Peking, packing Shantung collections and preparing for winter trip. Joined by Mr. R. H. Sargent, topographer. Mr. Blackwelder made reconnoissance in Manchuria, December 18 to 30. Mr. Willis made survey of artesian water conditions about Peking, De- cember 22 to 28, at request of the American minister. SECOND TRIP, WUTAI-SHAN. (From Peking, via Pao-t'ing fu, Fou-ping, Wutai-shan, and Hsin-chou, to Tai- yu-an fu. Shansi.) January i and 2. Peking to Pao-t'ing fu by rail. January 3 to March 7. On foot with pack-mules, Pao-t'ing fu to Tai-yuan fu ; topographical and geological survey along route, covering a strip five to twenty miles wide and two hundred and fifty miles long, with geology of the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, and Carboniferous rocks, physiography of the Shansi Mountains, and occurrence of the loess. March 8 to 12. At Tai-yuan fu, in conference with provincial authorities. INTERIM. March 13 to April i. En route Tai-yuan fu, Shansi to Hsi-an fu, Shensi, by cart, via the highway, with observations on geology-, physiography, and loess. April 2 to 11. At Hsi-an fu in conference with provincial authorities and prepar- ing for journey across the mountains to the Yangtse River. THIRD TRIP, SOUTHERN SHENSI. (From Hsi-an fu via Chou chih hsien, Shih ch'uanhsien Hsing-an fu, and Wu- shan to Ichang, on the Yangtse.) April 12 to May 10. On foot, with coolie transport, across the Ch'in ling Moun- tains, with topographical survey and geological reconnoissance from Chou-Chih hsien, in the Wei Valley, to Shih-ch'uan hsien, in the Han Valley ; geology of the pre-Cambrian and metamorphic Paleozoic ; phys- iography of the mountains of southern Shensi. May II to 14. At Shih-ch'uan hsien i day and boat trip with route traverse down the Han River 3 days to Hsing-an fu. May 15 and 16. At Hsing-an fu, engaging coolies. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 28 1 May 17 to June 6. Crossiuo^ the mountains via Ping^-li and Ta-ning hsien to Wu-shan on foot with coolie train; topographical survey, geological recon- noissance of Paleozoic strata from Cambrian to Upper Carboniferous, with studies of the physiography. June 6 to 8. By boat on the Yangtse River, Wu-shan to Ichang, with geological notes ; discovery of glacial deposits of early Cambrian age. June 9 to 13. En route, by steamer on the Yangtse River, Ichang to Shanghai. June 14 to 20. At Shanghai. June 20 to July 15. En route, by steamer Mongolia, from Shanghai to San Francisco. RESULTS OF RESEARCH. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GKOLOGY OF THE PAI.EOZOIC KRA. Canib}ian Strata and Faunas. — In Shantung the succession of strata of Cambrian age was established by definite measurements in connection with topographical sur\'eys, affording a complete record. The work was carried out in two districts, seventy miles apart, and variations of strata were thus determined from place to place. The results are embodied in detailed geological maps on a large scale. The observed facts show that the physical history of Shantung was closely parallel in character to that of the Central Appalachian prov- ince of North America, there being in each region a basal uncon- formity with very ancient metamorphic rocks, a sequence of clayey and limey deposits several thousand feet thick, and a predominance of limestone in the upper part of each series. From these Cambrian strata of Shantung collections of fossils were secured which thoroughly represent the faunas of the province. The}' comprise many forms found in North America and exhibit the succession of genera typical of the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cam- brian. Olenellus, the widespread genus universally found as the forerunner of the varied life of the early Paleozoic, here occupies its usual position near the base of the section. More complete collec- tions and more perfect specimens may be secured in some future work covering the whole province in detail, but such operations were beyond the scope of this expedition, except at the cost of abandoning other exploration. In the province of lyiaotung, southern Manchuria, according to Baron von Richthofen, there are strata older than the Cambrian, and it was thought possible that we might there find a pre-Cambrian fauna. The plan of travel in China first included a survey of Liao- tung for this purpose, but in consequence of the sensitive political conditions in Manchuria detailed operations were given up, on the advice of the American minister at Pekin. Nevertheless, Mr. 282 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. Blackvvelder, in December, carried out instructions for a recounois- sance to cover the point. The Yung-ning sandstone described by Baron von Richthofen was found, but contains no fossils and is strati- graphically probably not older than the lowest Cambrian of Shantung. In Chihli and Shansi, north of latitude 38°, Cambrian strata very similar to those in vShantung were discovered. Their general rela- tions and sequence were observed and their occurrence noted in connection with topographic surveys, so that the areas can be repre- sented in a general way on the maps. Fossils were secured which suffice to identify the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian terranes. In southern Shensi, about latitude 31° 30', occur limestone strata several thousand feet thick, which are but sparsely fossiliferous. In river pebbles derived from them fragments of Olenellus were found, which proved that the older strata are Lower Cambrian. Unfor- tunately the beds did not appear along the route traveled, but the limestones so closely resemble those of Middle and Upper Cambrian age of Shantung and Shansi in certain unusual lithologic characters as to leave little doubt of their being part of a corresponding sequence, at the base of which the Olenellus occurs. Cambrian Glacial Deposits . — On the Yangtse River, in latitude 31° — z. e., as far south as New Orleans, not high above sea-level — a large body of glacial till was discovered. It is unstratified, a mass of indurated clay and heterogeneous bowlders, many of which exhibit glacial polish and striae. Specimens submitted to Professor Cham- berlin and other expert glacialists are pronounced by them unques- tionably of glacial origin. This deposit lies near the base of the Paleozoic system, beneath limestone which in its lowest layers contains pebbles from the till, and which is in all probability of Lower Cambrian age, as the specimens of Olenellus referred to in the preceding paragraph were found in this district. The body of till is 170 feet thick, a ver}^ considerable mass. It demonstrates the existence of glacial conditions in a very low latitude in the early Paleozoic. A similar occurrence at a closely related Cambrian epoch has been reported from Scandinavia, but nowhere else has like evi- dence been found. This discovery takes a place among'the unique facts of geological history, and the latitude, the conditions of occur- rence, and the conclusiveness of the evidence being considered, it will have great weight in reference to theories of climatic change. Ordovician Strata. — Throughout Shantung, Chihli, Shansi, and Shensi, between latitude 30° and 40°, there is a limestone 3,000 feet or more thick, which is stratigraphically continuous with the GKOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 283 Upper Cambrian. It contains few fossils, but enough were found to demonstrate its Ordovician age. It is the counterpart of the Shenandoah limestone of Virginia in lithologic character and in its relation to the Cambrian series, and it thus appears that in eastern Asia, as in eastern America, the passage from the Cambrian to the Ordovician was without break in the sequence of strata or associated faunas. This relation was not recognized by Baron von Richthofen, who mistook the Ordovician limestone for the Carboniferous, which it closely resembles. In southern Shensi, on the Ta-ning River, fossils of Cincinuatian age were collected in abundance at a single locality, the only one in which the terrane was Leen. No previous record of the occurrence of strata of this age in China is known to me. Carbonijeroiis Strata. — The contribution to knowledge in reference to the Carboniferous is a correction of former views. In southern China there is a conspicuous Carboniferous limestone ; in southern and northern China there is a similar limestone of Ordovician age. Baron von Richthofen, not recognizing the distinction, mapped the Ordovician of northern China as Carboniferous, but it is now possible to indicate correctly the limits within which the Carbon- iferous occurs, so far as our observations go. Connected with the preceding is the recognition of an extensive unconformity between the Ordovician and the Coal Measures throughout northern China. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOI.OGV OF THE PRE-CAMBRIAN. Basement Complex. — The occurrence in Asia of ancient crystalline schists and intrusive igneous rock, constituting a basement complex beneath the obviously stratified series, has long been known through the work of Baron von Richthofen and of Russian explorers. The present contribution to knowledge of the system consists of more detailed observations of the relations of its members — several kinds of schists, gneiss, granite, and basic intrusives. One area, the Tai-shan in Shantung, was somewhat closely studied, and from it as well as from widely separated localities in Chihli, Shansi, and Shensi, specimens were secured for petrographic investigation. Pre-Cambria7i Sedimentary Series. — The Wutai-shan and adjacent mountains in northern Shansi consist of rocks ranging in age from the extremely ancient basement complex to the Coal Measures. Between the complex and the base of the Cambrian are two series, both of which were described by Baron von Richthofen, the older as the " Wutai schist," the younger as the " I^ower Sinian." In 284 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. siirve3dug the mountains the relations of these two series to earlier and later ones have been more exactly determined, and the con- stituent members of each series have been noted. Two points of in- terest may be stated : a conglomerate in the Wutai schist contains pebbles of quartzite derived from an older sedimentary formation which has not been surely identified in place ; and with reference to the Ivower Sinian, its relation to the Upper Sinian (Cambrian) was observed along an extensive contact and found to be that of marked unconformity. The Lower Sinian therefore falls out of the Cambrian and takes a position in the geologic column parallel with that of the Belt terrane of the northwestern United States. In the Belt terrane, after prolonged search, Mr. Walcott discovered certain fossils, the oldest definite forms known. The Lower Sinian was examined by us for fossils without success, but the strata are of limestone and shale favorable to the preservation of organic remains, and, considering the rare occurrence of the earliest fossils, the nega- tive result of this preliminary survey should not be considered final. The Lower Sinian may repay exhaustive study by results of which only exceptional localities offer any prospect anywhere in the world. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HIvSTORY OF MOUNTAINS. The Old Viezv and the New. — When Baron von Richthofen made his observations in China thg view prevailed that mountains were fixed features of the earth's surface, which dated in any particular case from a geologic age, however remote, represented by the youngest rocks in the mountain structure. This view is expressed in all the accounts of Asia by European scientists. In America, during the last fifteen years, through the study of topographic forms, it has been shown that the mountains of this continent are relatively recent features as compared with the rocks composing them, and owe their elevation to forces acting during the latest geologic periods down to the present. It was a point of prime interest in the com- parative geology of continents whether the American methods of study applied to Asia would show that mountain growth had re- cently been active there also. The observations of this expedition demonstrate clearly that the histories of mountains in North America and China run closely parallel in time, in manner of development, and in resulting features of relief. The studies of Professor Davis in western Asia point in the same direction, and the (as yet unpub- lished) investigations of Professors Penck and De Martonne in the Alps and Karpathians extend the generalization to central Europe. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 285 The conclusion that mountains are recent growths — indeed, are in some districts now actively growing — is far-reaching in effect on theories of the earth's internal energy and its manifestations, Moimtaiyi Groivths of China. — The oldest topographic surface rec- ognized in China was once in part a hilly region, in part a nearly level peneplain, which stood but slightly above sea level during early and perhaps middle Tertiary time. That surface has since been warped. Where depressed it lies below sea level, buried under the alluvial deposits of the Huang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang ; where ele- vated it tops the summits of mountain masses, even the Wutai-shan, at an elevation of 10,000 feet. Where the plain has been elevated, valleys and canyons are sculptured in the subjacent rock masses, and these, in their relative positions and in their forms, express the con- ditions under which they have been modeled. These conditions have varied from epoch to epoch, and the history of the changes is read in the mountain forms. Through our observations in China we recog- nize that the surface has been warped intermittently, episodes of rela- tively active movement having alternated with those of comparative quiescence. These variations distinguish stages of development which are capable of arrangement in a general sequence parallel with the history of mountains in North America. A discussion of the events of mountain growth is beyond the scope of this preliminary report, but it is of interest to note that the great ranges in eastern Asia, like those of western North America, are of very recent development. Conspicuous among the mountains we have seen are the Ho-shan of Shansi and the Hua-shan of Shensi. They are ranges of great altitude, with bold, even fronts like the Wasatch in Utah, and, like the Wasatch, they each define one margin of a dislocation in the earth's superficial crust, along which displacement has very recently occurred or is now going on. The superb scenery of the great gorges of the Yangtse and of the mountain region which extends north to the Huang-ho is a result of very recent unwarping, in spite of which the larger streams have held their courses, as the Columbia River has across the rising Cascade range. In addition to the interest which attaches to the history of moun- tain growth in China for itself, and to the broad inferences which may follow from a comparison with the mountains of North Amer- ica, the study affords important criteria for the new science of physi- ography, since the conditions in China have in some respects been peculiar. Among the interesting problems upon which our physio- graphic investigations throw light is that of the loess. 2 86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. The Loess. — Among the problems of geology in China, none has been more widely discussed than that of the origin and occurrence of the extensive and thick mantle of yellow earth, characterized by fine texture and vertical structure, to which Baron von Richthofen gave the name of loess. It is typically developed in Shansi and northern Shensi, along the route of our expedition, and presents those anomalie sof distribution which in part led Von Richthofen to the theory that the material is wind- carried dust from the deserts of central Asia. It occurs frequently on mountain slopes, where waters could not possibly have deposited it under existing topo- graphic conditions, and he consequently rejected the idea that it might have been deposited by rivers. The hypothesis of purely eolian origin excites doubt in view of the enormous mass of the loess, as well as because of facts of occurrence, and in America leading students of the loess of the Missouri Valley incline to attribute its special character to interaction of rivers and winds. The problem in China is much more complex than in the United States, but light is thrown on it by a proper understanding of the history of the mountains. In the development of the topography there was a stage when there were broad valleys which became overspread with alluvial deposits. Later the surface was strongly warped, stream courses became readjusted, and the alluvium was in part redistributed, but in part remains in remnants on hills produced b}' the warping of the flood-plains. The alluvium was and is loess. It owes its fine, uni- form texture to sifting by wind, and its peculiar structure may be a physical effect of the capillary movement of water in the impal- pable dust beds, but it probably accumulated as the alluvium of the Huang-ho and other streams. The interaction of winds and rivers was specially favored by the climatic conditions of the Pleistocene, which in America and Europe gave rise to the great ice-sheets. In China there was no glaciation, but, according to the history of the mountains, the time of loess accumulation fell in early Pleistocene, and the deposit may be considered the representative in eastern Asia of our glacial beds. The observations made during our jour- ney bring the facts of the loess into accord with the physiographic history of the region in which it occurs, and into agreement with the similar formation in America. We supplement the views of Baron von Richthofen : We regard the agency of wind, upon which he laid stress, as of prime importance in producing the peculiar texture of the loess and in distributing the dust locally ; we show that, at present, winds and streams are both engaged in transporting it, GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 287 Streams doing the greater part of the work ; that during an epoch shortly preceding the present, topographic conditions were unhke those now existing, and were favorable to the accumulation of alluvium in places where its situation is now peculiar, and we reason that the same agencies, streams and winds interacting, spread the deposit initiallj'. ON THE INFLUENCE OF MAN. Denudation and Terracing. — Northern China is remarkably bare of trees, shrubs, or herbage, except shade-trees, fruit-trees, crops, and on steep hillsides strong-rooted, ineradicable grass. This condition is the work of man. Unchecked by public opinion or by regard for future generations, the Chinese have destroyed vegetation in supplying individual need. The process still continues, as, pressed by the necessity for fuel, they scratch up the scanty grass by the roots with a specialh' contrived tool. The effects of denudation are more pronounced in Shantung than in any other province visited. For 3,000 years or more the process has been efl&ciently promoted by a dense population, which has removed not only vegetation, but also soil, wherever the latter was not deep enough to grow crops or did not present a nearly level surface. The disastrous effects of heavy rains must early have led to the practice of terracing, which is now universal and which is extended to the utmost limits of gathering soil. In a few rare in- stances in Shantung we found thin soil on steep slopes near moun- tain tops, dug up above a stone wall with the obvious purpose that it should be washed down and caught. Everywhere below was the perfected system of terraces — soil reservoirs. Northern Shausi presents similar conditions, but in a less advanced stage. The Wutai-shan affords an especially interesting example. The mountains were forest-covered with pines up to the time of the Emperor Chien Lung, who, about 160 years ago, issued an edict that the district which had previously been inhabited only by priests should be populated. The trees were rapidly destroyed ; the great bare mountains are now at the mercy of the elements, and huge gullies, eating their way toward the summits, tell what progress denudation is making, as do also the wastes of gravel and sand along the streams. The method of terracing, in general use elsewhere, is but rudely developed in the Wutai, yet a beginning is made, and the necessities of agriculture will demand that it be perfected. In southern Shensi the climate is less rigorous and vegetation is more luxuriant. There forests of pine still cover large areas in dis- 20 288 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. tricts SO remote or so difficult of access that the Chinese can not utilize the timber, and slopes which are not in cultivation become overgrown with shrubs. These observations of destructive and constructive activity in dif- ferent stages of progress afford important suggestions for the people of less densely populated countries. The photographs secured strikingly illustrate the facts noted. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHY. Mother-maps of China. — The original surveys upon which maps of China are based are of four classes : Chinese maps ; the astronomical positions determined by the Jesuits prior to 1730; travelers' route traverses ; and modern surveys by military intelligence branches of the English, German, French, and Russian governments. Trav- elers' traverses, 'executed with compass, barometer, and rude methods of measuring distances, have supplied the greater part of cartographic data ; and the contribution of Baron von Richthofen is conspicuous in all maps of districts through which he journeyed. The recent surveys b}' military officers in north China have not been extended beyond the great plain, except perhaps along certain principal high- ways, and in Shantung, where the Germans are making a detailed map. The geographic surveys of the Carnegie expedition are con- tributions which, for accuracy of positions, rank with the best of the military surveys, and in topographic expression excel them. Methods of Topographic Survey. — In general the methods of the survey were those developed with the plane-table in the western United States by the United States Geological Survey, except that primary triangulation points were not available. When practicable a base line was measured, triangulation was expanded from it by theodolite or plane-table, and stations were occupied with the plane- table for location of numerous points by intersection and for topo- graphic sketching. Where this graphic triangulation was not prac- ticable a stadia traverse was carefully run. Relative altitudes were determined by vertical angles. At Paoting fu the elevation of the Belgian railway was taken as a datum, and heights above sea-level were thus closely determined. Elsewhere a datum based on aneroid barometers was the best available, and absolute elevations are merely approximate, although relative heights are as nearly correctly deter- mined as the vertical-angle method permits. Throughout Mr. Sargent's work determinations of latitude were made both by sextant and by observations on Polaris whenever con- GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 289 ditions permitted. Polaris was also frequently observed for azimuth. The surveys in Shantung, which I executed before Mr. Sargent joined the party, lacked these checks, but were otherwise carried out with plane-table and graphic triangulation by the methods which he employed. Summary of Geographic Results. — All our topographic maps are on a scale of i : 90,000, with contour interval of 100 feet. In Shantung : Topographic maps of two special areas, bj- Bailey Willis. The Ch'ang-hsia district, 135 square miles; the Hsin-tai district, 230 square miles. These are base maps to illustrate geo- logical relations and physiographic types. They are too limited to have much geographic significance. In exchange for data relating to names, on request of Oberlieutenant Kleeman, in charge, copies were furnished the German Intelligence Department at Tientsin, to be incorporated in the map of Shantung. In Chihli and Shansi : Topographic maps of the route from Pao- t'ing fu via Wutai-.shan to Tai-yuan fu, by R. H. Sargent. The area represented is 250 miles long by 5 to 20 miles wide. The survey was exeeuted by graphic triangulation expanded from a base line at T'ang hsien, Chihli, to a second base line at Tai-yuan fu, Shansi. A short stretch on the plain from Pao-t'ing fu to T'ang h'sien was measured by stadia traverse, triangulation being impracticable. The latitude and longitude of Pao-t'ing fu were accepted as determined by the British Intelligence Branch, and all other points of the sur- vey, including Wutai-shan and Tai-yuan fu, are fixed by the triangu- lation with reference to this datum. Independent observations for latitude serve as checks ; by means of contours the elevation and form of topographic features are expressed in a manner adequate for engineering plans or physiographic studies, as they have not pre- viously been for any considerable area of China of which maps are published. As the survey extends from the low plain at Pao-t'ing fu over the mountain passes into Shansi covers much of the Wutai-shan at altitudes of 8,000 to 10,000 feet,, and descends into the basin of Tai-yuan fu, along an old but not previously surveyed main route of commerce, it is an original contribution of much value. In Shensi : A continuous traverse, about 375 miles long, in three sections. First section : From Chou-chih hsien, in the Wei Valley, across the Ch'in-ling Mountains, to Shih ch'uan-hsien, on the Han River, 100 miles ; expanded from a base line by graphic triangula- tion to the crest of the Ch'in-ling range and thence extended as a stadia traverse, with topographic sketching, the conditions being 290 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. unfavorable for triangulating. Second section : From Shih-ch'uan hsien to Hsing-an fu by boat, 100 miles ; directions by compass and distances by time, with estimate of rate of progress. Third section: From Hsing-an fu, on the Han, to Wu-shan, on the Yangtse River, 175 miles; by stadia traverse, with topographic sketching. The whole was checked throughout by observations for latitude. These three sections furnish a map along routes not previously surveyed, except that the third section coincided with a military reconnois- sance executed a few weeks earlier by the British party under Colonel Manifold, of whose plans we were not aware in selecting a way across the mountains. From the Wei Valley to the Yangtse is a mountainous region, scarcely known as to general features and not at all as to details which express physiographic history or the diffi- culties opposed to engineering ; the Han is an important route of commercial exchange of which our traverse covers a stretch hitherto not mapped ; the contribution to geographic knowledge is one of definite facts where previous information was vague or lacking. CONTRIBUTIONS TO ZOOLOGY. Mamvials, Birds, and Reptiles. — Through the special knowledge of natural history possessed by Mr. Blackwelder, and especially of birds, the scientific results secured hy the expedition are enriched by his observations on the distribution and habits of mammals, birds, and reptiles. His notes cover, of mammals, 11 species, i specimen ; of birds, 150 species, 64 specimens; of reptiles and amphibians, 10 species, 10 specimens. Those species not represented by specimens are described from notes taken in the field. Among the data is a daily roll-call of the birds seen from October to June in the widely sepa- rated districts of plain and mountain which we traversed. ARTESIAN WATERS. Peking and Vicinity. — At the request of the American minister, Hon. E. H. Conger, and by the authority of the Director of the Carnegie Institution, I made an investigation of the artesian water conditions in the vicinity of Peking, and reported favorably. The re- port was addressed to Mr. Conger, was by him forwarded to the State Department, and thence referred to the United States Geolog- ical Survey for suggestions in regard to well boring. The water-supply of Pekin is very inadequate and seriously con- taminated. Should a successful well be drilled it will lead to ma- terial benefit to the American Legation, to the foreign community, and in time possibly to the Chinese population. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 29 1 PHOTOGRAPHS. Snap Shots. — The party was equipped with pocket kodaks and with one No. 4 Panoram kodak, with which altogether a thousand or more snap shots were secured. These are useful as notes and 5 to 10 per cent of them may be appropriate in illustrating reports. Time Photographs. — Being supplied with a 6}4 by 83^ camera and Zeiss combination lens, loaned by the United States Geological Sur- vey, I was able to take many photographs not within the reach of snap-shot cameras. About 250 good negatives were obtained, com- prising subjects in scenery, architecture, temples, idols, and portraits of much interest. INDEX. Page Abel, Annie H., Investigations concerning Early Indian Policy of the United States : 1 20 Abel, John J 103 Abrasive Materials, Investigation concerning 58 Accompanying Papers, List 7 Act of Incorporation 9-12 Adams, A. D 60 Adams, E. D., On Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy 67 Adams, Frank D., Investigation on Flow of Rocks 119 Adams, Henry C 63 Adams, W. S 157 Agriculture and Forestry, Investigation concerning 56 Allen, C. E., Research Assistant 146 Amendment of By-laws 16 Anatomical Notes on Certain Strand Plants, by M. A. Chrysler 148 Anau, Excavations at .... 75 Andrews, Charles M 65 Anthracite Coal, Investigation concerning 57 Anthropology, Projects concerning 83-84 Antiquity of the Zeanuthid Actinians, by J. E. Duerden 149 Appropriations by Board of Trustees, December 8, 1903 21 Archeological Expedition to Trans-Caspian Region 75-79 Archeology, Projects concerning 84-85 Archives at Washington, Guide to 65 Arikara, Traditions of 83 Artesian Waters in the Vicinity of Pekin ... 290 Articles of Incorporation 9-1 2 Asbestos, Study of . . 58 Associates at Cold Spring Harbor Station 28 Astronomical Manuscript. 147 Astronomical Observations and Computations 85 Astronomy, Projects concerning 85-95 Atmospheric Pressure at Mount Wilson 167 Atwater, W. O. , Investigations in Nutrition 130 Babine, A. V 98 Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases 147 Balch, Miss E. G 56 Bancroft, Wilder D., on a Systematic Chemical Study of Alloys 104 Banks, Enoch M 56 Barnett, S. J., Research on Electric Displacement 124 Barytes, Study of 58 Basement Complex, Eastern Asia 283 Baskerville, Charles, on Investigation of Rare Earths 105 293 294 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Bateson, William 29 Bauer, L. A., and Littlehales, G. W., on Proposed Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean 269-273 Baxter, Gregory T., Research upon the Atomic Weight of Manganese . . 105 Becker, George F . 80 Behr, Gustave E 112 Bell, Alexander Graham 29, 32 Benton, J. R ' 80 Bibliographic Index of North American Fungi 147 Bibliography of Work Accomplished by Grantees 14S-152 Bibliography, Projects concerning 95-98 Billings, John S. : Elected Member of Executive Committee 17 Remarks at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 37-38 Biology, Experimental, Department of 22-54 Bituminous Coal, Investigation concerning 58 Blackmar, F. W 56 Blackwelder, Eliot 275 Blakeslee, A. F. , Research Assistant . . . 146 Bliss, Frederick J., Excavations in Syria and Palestine.. 84 Bogart, E. L 63 Boss, L,ewis 155 Astronomical Observations and Computations 85 On Southern Observatory Project I75-I77 Botanical Laboratory at Tucson 98 Botany, Projects concerning. 98-102 Bowles, M. N 57 Brazos Valley, Agricultural Industry in 56 Brief Notes on Mosquito Larvae, by H. G. Dyar 149 British Archives 65 Britton, N. L 28 Brooks, Hildegard 75 Brough, C. H 63 Brown, Amos P 134 Bryan, Walter 144 Building Stones, Investigation concerning 58 Butterfield, K. L 55,56 Byall, J. B '61 By-laws of the Carnegie Institution of Washington 13-16 Caddoan Stock, Tribes of 83 Cambrian Glacial Deposits in Eastern Asia 282 Campbell, William, Research on Heat Treatment of Some High-carbon Steels 124 Campbell, W. W 155 Investigations by 86 Cannon, W. A q8 Carboniferous Strata in Eastern Asia 283 Carhart, Henry S., Preparation of Material for Standard Cells 124 INDEX. 295 Page Carlson, A. J i 4 Research on the Physiology of the Invertebrate Heart 134 Carver, T. N 56 Cash Statement at close of Fiscal Year ending October 31, 1904 18 Castle, W. E 28 Castle, W. E., and E. L. Mark, Experimental Studies in Heredity 136 Cat and the Child, by C. E. Browne 148 Catalogue of Double Stars 147 Catalogue of Standard Stars, by Lewis Boss 148 Cements, Study of. . 58 Chairman of Board of Trustees 13 Chamberlin, T. C, on Fundamental Problems in Geology 117, 195-267 Chaucer, Lexicon to Works of 96 Chemical Materials, Study of 58 Chemistry, Projects concerning 103-113 Children's Ideas of Fire, Heat, Frost, and Cold, by G. Stanley Hall and C. E. Browne 149 Childs, C. D., Investigation of Ionization in the Neighborhood of a Mer- cury Arc in a Vacuum 126 Chimera — Memoir on the Embryology of Primitive Fishes 147 China, Mother-maps of 288 Chittenden, Russel H., Investigation in Nutrition 131 Chromium, Investigation concerning 57 Chrysler, M. A., Anatomical Notes on Certain Strand Plants 148 Clay Materials, Investigation concerning 58 Clay Stratas and Faunas in Eastern Asia 281 Cloudiness at Mount Wilson 165 Coastwise Commerce, American, Study of 60 Coblentz, W. W. , Research Assistant 146 Cold Spring Harbor 22-32 Correspondence 28 Description of Grounds and Building 24-27 Honorary Associates 27, 28 Library 27 Publications. 32 Scientific Work ^9 Collected Mathematical Works of G. W. Hill I47 Color Inheritance in Mice, by C. B. Davenport 149 Coloration in Polistes '47 Commerce, Domestic and Foreign, Economic Study of 60 Committees of Board of Trustees, By-laws concerning 15 Conditions which govern the Appearance of Spark Lines in Arc Spectra, by Henry Crew M9 Cone, Lee H 106 Contributions to Study of Behavior of Lower Organisms i47 Contributions to Stellar Statistics '47 Conway, Thomas ^° Cooper, Franklin W 38 296 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Cooper, Hermon C 109 Copper, Investigation concerning 57 Coral Siderastrcea radians 147 Correns, C. E 29 Correspondence. Cold Spring Harbor Station . . 28 Cortelyou, George B 5° Coville:, Frederick V 9^5 Coxe, Eckley B 58 Craig, Wallace 1 45 Craighill, W. E 50 Crampton, Henry E 28 On Laws of Variation and Inheritance of Certain Lepidoptera 136 Creak, E. W 74,272 Crew, Henry, Study of Certain Arc Spectra 126 Cuenot, Lucien 29 Culex perturbans. First stage of, by H. G. Dyar and R. P. Currie 149 Curiosity and Interest, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith 149 Curtis, W. C 145 Daggett, S 60 Darstellung und Eigenscliaften eines Abbauproductes des Epinephrins, byj. J. Abel 148 Darwin, G. H., on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences. . 189-190 Davenport, Charles B 22 Address at Opening of Station for Experimental Evolution 33-34 Report as Director of Station for Experimental Evolution 23-32 Davis, Bradley ]M 145 Davis, Herman S., Investigations by 87 Day, Arthur L,-, Report on Investigation of Mineral Fusion and Solution under Pressure So Dean. A. L-, Research Assistant 146 De Mello, Carlos, Report on Bibliography of Geophysics 81 Description of the New Oxygen Apparatus Accessory to the Calorimeter. 147 Desert Botanical Laboratory of Carnegie Institution 147 Papers relating to ." 100 Report on 98-100 Desert Shrubs, Absorption and Transpiration of Water by 102 De Vries, Hugo 28, 30, 38 Address at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 39-49 Dewey, D. R 55,61 Dickson, L. E. , Research Assistant 146 Dieserud, J 98 Diplomatic Correspondence of State Department 66 Dorsey, George A., Investigation among Tribes of Caddoan Stock 83 Dought)', H. W., Research Assistant 146 Dry Tortugas Station 22 Duerden, J. E. , Morphology and Development of Recent and Fossil Corals. 137 Duggan, B. M 145 Durand, W. F., Experiments on Ship Resistance and Propulsion 113 Earth's Magnetism, Existing Data concerning 73 INDEX. 297 Page Eastern Asia, Geological Research in 275-291 Eckels, E. C 58 Economics and Sociology, Department of, Report by Carroll D. Wright. 55-67 Edquist, J. A I45 Eigenmann, Carl H., Investigation of Blind Fishes in Cuba 138 Electromotive Force of Clark & Weston Standard Cells, Absolute Value of, by Henry S. Carhart 148 Ellerman, Ferdinand I57 Elster, J , 68 Ely, Richard T. . . 62 Engineering, Projects concerning 113-114 Epinephrin and Its Compounds, by J. J. Abel 147 Eucorethra, a Genus of Culicidae, by D. W. Coquillett 148 Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal I47 lixact Sciences, Methods for Promoting Research in 1 79-193 Executive Administration, By-laws concerning. 14 Executive Committee . . ; 3 Duties of ... . '5 Report on the Work of the Year 21-152 Experimental Biology, Department of 22-54 Experimental Evolution : Aim of, Address by Dr. Hugo de Vries 39~49 First Report of Station for 23-32 Explorations in Turkestan i47 Fairchild, F. R 62 Farnam, Henry W 55. 62 Farrar, C. B. , Research Assistant - ^46 Fecundation in Plants i47 Federal and State Finance, including Taxation, Study of 63 Finance Committee 3 Dilties of 15 Finance, Federal and State, including Taxation, Study of 63 Financial Administration of Carnegie Institution of Washington, By-laws concerning 16 Financial Statement 20 Fischer, E 29 Fisheries, American, Outline of History of 61 Fletcher, Robert, Report on Index Medicus 95 Fliigel, Ewald • • 9^ Fluorescence of Sodium "Vapor 129 Fluor-spar, Study of 5^ Forbes, George S ^ ^ 2 Foreign Trade, American, Study of 60 Fossil Chelonia of North America 122 Fossil Turtles belonging to the Marsh Collection in Yale University Museum, by O. P. Hay I49 Four New Species of Culex, by D. W. Coquillett 148 Frazer, J. C. W 108 298 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Fullers' Earth, Study of 58 FuQction of Suprarenal Glands and Chemical Nature of their so-called Active Principle, by J. J. Abel 148 Fundamental Problems in Geology 195-267 Gardner, Henry B 55. 63 Garstang, William ii4 Geitel, H 68 Geological Research in Eastern Asia 275-291 Geology : Fundamental Problems of 195-267 Projects concerning 117-118 Geophysical Research : Geophj'sics, Bibliography of 81 Report by George F. Becker 80 Geophysics, Projects concerning 1 19-120 Getman, F. H 106 Giesecke, A. A 60 Gilbert, G. K. , on Plans for Obtaining Subterranean Temperatures. 120, 259-267 Gilman, Daniel C. : Chairman of Executive Committee 21 Resignation as President 17 Goldenweiser, M. E 55 Gomberg, Moses 106 Goss, W. F. M., Research to Determine the Value of High Steam Press- ures in I^ocomotive Service . . . ^ 14 Graphite, Study of 58 Grimsley, G. P 58 Groat, George C 62 Guide to the Archives of the Government at Washington 65, 147 Gypsum, Study of 58 Hale, George E. : Experiments on Use of Fused Quartz for Construction of Optical Mirrors 127 Investigations by 88-90 On Conditions for Solar Research at Mount Wilson, California . . . 155-174 Report on Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson, California 94 Hammond, M. B 59 Handbook of Learned Societies. 97 Hay, Oliver P., On the Fossil Chelonia of North America 122 Hedrick, W. 0 63 Heredit}'^ of Coat Characters in Guinea Pigs and Rabbits 147 Hinks, A. R 93 Historical Research : Bureau of. Report by Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director 65-67 Projects concerning 120-121 Hollander, J. H 62 Holmes, William H., Report on Evidence Relative to History of Early Man in America. . 84 Hooker, John D . . 157 INDEX. 299 Howard, L. O.: Page Geographic Distribution of the Yellow Fever Mosquito 150 Report on American Mosquitoes 1 28 Howe, William Wirt, Inquiry into the Subject of an Investigation on Legal History and Comparative Jurisprudence 121 Hulbner, S 60 Humidity at Mount Wilson, California . 165 Huntington, Ellsworth 75 Hurst, C. C 29 Hussey, W. J 155 Igneous Rocks, Chemical Investigations of 1 13 Illustrations, List of 7 Immigration and Population 55 Inactive Thorium, by Charles Baskerville and Fritz Zerban 148 Incorporation, Articles of 9-12 Index Medicus 95 Indiana, Study of Financial History of 63 Industrial Organization, Study of 62 Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy 147 Ingalls, Walter R 57 Insurance, Study of 62 Investments of Carnegie Institution of Washington 19. 20 Iron Ores, Investigation concerning 57 Jenks, J. W 55, 62 Jennings, H. S I45 Johnson, Emory R 5°, 60 Johnson, John M 23 Johnson, Roswell P 22 Jones, Charles 32 Jones, David 32 Jones, H. C , Investigations in Physical Chemistry 106 Jones, H. C, and F. H. Getman : Existence of Alcoholates in Solutions of Certain Electrolytes in Alcohol 150 Existence of Hydrates in Solutions of Certain Non-Electrolytes 150 Nature of Concentrated Solutions of Electrolytes 150 Jones, John D 23, 33, 36 Jones, John H 35 Jones, O. L 32 Jones, William ^3 Jones, William, Research Assistant 146 Jones, W. R. T., Address at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 34 Kastle, J. H., and Elias Elvove, On the Reduction of Nitrates of Certain Plant Extracts and Metals 15° Kato, Yogoro • 109 Kelly, T. E 23, 28 Kidder, Homer. 75 King, A. S., Research Assistant 146 Detailed Study of Line Spectrum of Copper 15° Study of Causes of Variability of Spark Spectra 150 300 CARNEGIP; INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page King, Cyrus A I44 Koch, Julius A i44 Kraemer, Henry I44 Kuiiz, George F., On Precious Stones and Minerals Used in Ancient Babylonia ^ 84 Labor Movement, Study of History of 62 Land Ownership in Georgia 56 Landis, W. S 57 Laney, F. P 58 Lang, Arnold 29 Langley, S. P I55 Larva of Culex pimdor, by H. G. Dyar 149 Larvae of the Mosquitoes Megarrhinus rutilus and M. portoricensis , by H. G. Dyar 149 Lead, Investigations concerning 57 Learned Societies, Handbook of 97 Leavell, R. H 56 Lehmer, Derrick N 121 Leith, C. K 57 Leland, Waldo G . . . 65 Levene, P. A., Research Assistant 146 (i) Autolysis of Animal Organs. (2) Hydrolitic Cleavage of Fresh and Self-digested Glands 150 Darstellung und Analyse Einiger Nucliusauren 150 Hydrolysis of Spleen Nucleic Acid by Dilute Mineral Acid 150 Levene, P. A., and L. B. Stookey, on Combined Action of Proteolytic Enzymes 150 Lewis, E. Percival : Afterglow of Metallic Vapors in Nitrogen 150 Spectra of Nitrogen and its Oxides 150 Vacuum-tube Spectra of Gases and Vapors 128 Lewis, Warren H 144 Life History of Culex canlans, by H. G. Dyar 149 Life History of Culex pimdor, by H. G. Dyar 149 Lillie, R. S., Research Assistant 146 Linde, Curtis eg Lithium Minerals, Study of rg Lithograph Stone, Study of eg Lithonia District 26'> Littlehales, G. W ^4 Littlehales, G. W., and Bauer, L. A., on Proposed Magnetic Survey of North Pacific Ocean 26Q-27'i Livingston, Burton E., on Investigations of Relations of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and Evaporation joq Lloyd, F. E '!!!".''!''.'!'' 100 Lockwood, W. D c^ Loeh. Leo . ; J44 On the Spontaneous Agglutination of Blood Cells of Arthropods ... 150 Uber die Koagulation des Bhites Eineger Arthropoden 150 INDEX. 301 Page hong Island Railroad '. 23 Louderback, G. D., Research Assistant 146 Basin Range Structure of Humboldt Region 150 Lower Organisms, Contributions to Study of Behavior. 147 Ivuetscher, G. D 59 Lunn, Arthur C. , Letter of 256-258 Lutz, Anne M 23, 28, 31 Report b}' .... 31 Lutz, Frank E . . 23, 27 Report by 31 Research Assistant 146 MacDougal, D. T 28, 31, 98 Botanical Explorations in the Southwest 150 Delta and Desert Vegetation 150 McBain, W. J 107 McCarthy, Charles 59 McClelland, J. F 57 McClendon, J. F 144 McClung, C. E., Comparative Study of Spermatogenesis of Insects 139 McFarland, Raymond 61 McLaughlin, A. C. : Papers of William Paterson on the Federal Convention, 1787 150 Report on Department of Historical Research 65-67 Sketches of Charles Pinckney's plan for Constitution, 1787 150 Magnesite, Study of 58 Magnetic Data, Compilation and Discussion of 69 Magnetic Perturbations during Eruption of Mont Pelee 72 Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean 269-273 Magnetism, Terrestrial, Report on, by L. A. Bauer 68-74 Manganese : Atomic Weight of 105 Investigation concerning 57 Manufactures, Economic Investigations concerning 59 Marine Biological Laboratory : Tortugas, Fla. , Report on '50-54 Woods Hole, Mass 22,144 Mark, E. L 28 Marriage and Fecundity of College Men and Women, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith 149 Mascart, E 68 Massachusetts Trust Companies and Savings Banks 61 Mathematics, Projects concerning 121-122 Mayer, Alfred G 22 Report of Progress in Establishment of Marine Biological Laboratory at Tortugas, Fla 50-54 Melcher, Arthur C 109 Memoir on Fossil Cycads I47 Mercer, W. F I45 302 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Merchant Marine, American, Study of 60 Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 179-193 Mica, Investigation concerning 5^ Michelson, A. A 128 Michigan, Study of Financial History of 63 Miller, W. L., Study of Electric Migrations in Solutions of Weak Acids 107 Mineral Fusion and Solution under Pressure 80 Mineral Pigments, Study of 5^ Mining, Investigation concerning 57 Minor, Marie L, I44 Minutes of Second Meeting of Board of Trustees of Carnegie Institution of Washington 1 7-20 Mississippi, Taxation in 63 Mitchell, T. W 60 Mitchell, Wesley C 61 Moenkhaus, W. J 28 Money and Banking, Study of History of 61 Mont Pelee, Magnetic Perturbations Observed 72 Morphology of the Madreporaria and Septal Sequence, by J. E. Duerden. 149 Morse, A. P., New Acridiidte from the Southeastern States 150 Morse, H. N., Method for Measurement of Osmotic Pressure 108 Morse, H. N. , and J. C. W. Frazer, A New Electric Furnace and Various Other Electric Heating Appliances for Ivaboratory Use 150 Morse, Max W 145 Mother-maps of China 288 Moulton, F. R., Letter of 255-256 Mountain Growths of China 285 Mountains, History of . . . . 284 Mount Wilson, California, Study of Conditions for Solar Research at. . 155-174 Weather Tables 164-1 71 Muller, W. Max, Investigation concerning Monuments of Egypt and Nubia 84 Munroe, Charles E 58 Mussey, Henry R 59 Mutants and Hybrids of the Oenotheras 147 Mythology of the Wichita 147 Naples Zoological Station 145 Natural Gas, Investigation concerning 58 Nervous Origin of Heart-beat in Limulus, by A. J. Carlson 148 New Anopheles with Unspotted Wings, by D. W. Coquillett 148 New Culicid Genus Related to Corethra, by D. W. Coquillett 148 New Method of Determining Compressibility 147 New North American Diptera, by D. W. Coquillett 148 Newcomb, Simon jrr Investigations by 90-92 Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 179-181 Newell, F. H 259 INDEX. 303 Noguchi, H.: Page Comparative Study of Snake Venom and Snake Sera 150 Effect of Snake Venom on Blood Corpuscles of Cold-blooded Ani- mals 133, 150 Heat Ivability of the Complements of Cold-blooded Animals 151 Interaction of the Blood of Cold-blooded Animals with Reference to Haemolysis 151 Multiplicity of the Serum haem-agglutinins of Cold-blooded Animals . 151 Study of Immunization-haemolysins, Agglutinins, Precipitins, and Coagulins in Cold-blooded Animals 151 Normal Arc Spectra of Aluminium and Cadmium, by Henry Crew 149 North, S. N. D 55, 59 North Pacific Ocean, Proposed Magnetic Survey of 269-273 Notes on Culex nigntulus, by D. W. Coquillett 148 Notes on the Mosquitoes of British Columbia, by H. G. Dyar 149 Noyes, A. A., Researches by . . 109-111 Nutrition, Investigations in 130-132 Nymphsea in Africa, by H. S. Conard 148 Observations on the Germination of Phoradendron villosum and P. cali- fornicum, by William A. Cannon 148 Officers of Board of Trustees, By-laws concerning 13 Officers of the Carnegie Institution of Washington 3 Ohio, Study of Financial History of 63 Olive, E. W. : Cytology of Certain Lower Plants .... loi Mitotic Division of Nuclei of Cyanophycese 151 Optical Notes, by W. W. Coblentz 148 Ordovician Strata in Eastern Asia 282 Orr, Arthur 157 Osborn, Thomas B., Research on Chemical Substances Yielded by Pro- teids of the Wheat Kernel when Decomposed by Acids iii Osmotic Pressure, Method for Measurement 108 Overton, James B. , Uber Parthenogenesis bei Thalidrum purptirascens. . . 151 Oxidation and Reduction in the Animal Organism, by J. H. Kastle and Elias Elvove 150 Paleontology, Projects concerning 122-124 Palestine and Syria, Excavations in. 84 Parker, E. W 55, 57 Parkhurst, J. A. : Faint Stars near the Trapezium on the Orion Nebula.. 151 Nova Geminorum — An Early Photograph and Photographic Magni- tudes 151 Observed Magnitudes of 62. 1903 Andromedae 151 Photometric Magnitudes of Comparison 151 Stars for Nova Geminorum 151 The Variable Star 1921 W Aurigae 151 The Variable Star 6871 V Lyrae 151 Patten, William, Studies relating to the Origin of Vertebrates 140 Patterson, George W 125 21 304 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Patterson, W. P 59 Pearl, Raymond, Investigation by Statistical Methods of Correlation in Variation 14° Pearl, Raymond, and Mary J. Burr, A Statistical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium ^5i Pearson, Karl. Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in the Exact Sciences 184-188 Pease, Arthur Stanley 3° Pekin, Water Supply of 290 Perkins, H. F., Double Reproduction in the Medusa Hybocodon protifer . 151 Perkins, I., Marantacese of the Philippines 151 Petroleum, Investigation concerning 58 Phenomena of Repair in Cerebral Cortex, by C. B. Farrar 149 Phillips, U. B 59 Research Assistant 146 Phonetics, Experimental 114-115 Physics, Projects concerning 124-130 Physiology, Projects concerning 130-134 Piazzi's Star Observations, New Reduction of, by H. S. Davis 87 Pickering, E. C 92, I55 Grant from Carnegie Institution 151 Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences. 193 Nova Geminorum before Its Discovery , 151 Plehn, C. C 63 Plurality of Cytolysins in Normal Blood Serum, by S. Flexner and H. Noguchi 149 Plurality of Cytolysins in Snake Venom, by Simon Flexner and H. Noguchi 149 Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in the Evolution of Plants and Animals 152 Polistes, Coloration in 147 Poor Lav?s, Study of 62 Pope, A 60 Pope, J. E 56 Population and Immigration 55 Potts, Charles S 56 Pratt, Joseph H 58 Precambrian Sedimentary Series 283 Preliminary Communication on Infra-red Absorption Spectra of Organic Compounds, by W. W. Coblentz 148 President ot Carnegie Institution of Washington, By-laws concerning. . . 14 Production and Properties of Anti-crotalus Venin, by S. Flexner and H. Noguchi 149 Production of Sex in Human Offspring 147 Provident Institutions, Study of 62 Publications : List of 147 Of Cold Spring Harbor Station 32 Relating to Work Accomplished by Grantees, Bibliography of . . 148-152 INDEX. 305 Pumpelly, R. : Page Investigation upon Ancient Sites at Anau 151 Report on Trans-Caspian Archeological Expedition 75-79 Pumpelly, R. W 75 Putnam, Herbert 97 Railroad Finance, Study of 60 Railroad Rate-making, Study of 60 Railway Reorganizations, Economic Investigation concerning 60 Rare Earths, Investigations concerning 58, 105 Rawles, W. A 63 Rayleigh, Lord, Letter of 188 Reactions to Light and Darkness, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith. . . 149 Recent Results on Morphology and Development of Coral Polyps, by J. E. Duerden 149 Reed, W. M. , Investigations by 92 Reichert, Edward T., and Amos P. Brown, Research on Crystallography of Hemogloblin . . i ^4 Report on Experiments on Elasticity and Plasticity of Solids 80 Reports on Large Projects 22-74 Research Assistants, List of 146 Researches on North American Acridiidae 147 Respiration Calorimeter with Appliances for the Direct Determination of Oxygen, by W. O. Atwater 148 Results of Investigations of Poison of Serpents 147 Rhodes, Frederick A 144 Carbohydrate Metabolism 151 Rhythm Produced in the Resting Heart of Molluscs on the Stimulation of the Cardio-accelerator Nerves, by A. J. Carlson .... 148 Richards, Theodore W. : Effects of Chemical and Cohesive Internal Pressure 151 Investigation of Value of Atomic Weights 112 Richards, T. W., and W. N. Stull, New Method of Determining Com- pressibility 151 Richardson, Harriet 144 Ries, Heinrich 58 Ripley, William Z . . 55, 59 Ritchey, G. W 127 Ross, F. E. , Research Assistant 92, 146 Rotation of Sun as Determined from Motion of Calcium Flocculi 147 Rowe, L. S. , Research Assistant 146 Russell, Henry N., on Photographic Determination of the Parallaxes of Stars 92 Sargent, Porter E 145 Research Assistant 146 The Optic Reflex Apparatus of Vertebrates for Short-circuit Trans- mission of Motor Reflexes through Reissner's Fiber 151 The Torus Longitudinalis of the Teleost Brain 151 Sargent, R. H 275 Schmidlin, Jules 106 306 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. Page Schmidt, Adolf 68, 73 Schmidt, Hubert 75 Schuster, Arthur • . . . 68 Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 190-192 Scott, G. W. , Research Assistant 146 Scripture, E. W., Researches in Experimental Phonetics 114 Secretary of Board of Trustees 14 Several New Diptera from North America, by D. W. Coquillett 148 Sheldon, A. E 56 Shepherd, E. S., Research Assistant 146 Constitution of the Copper-zinc Alloys 152 Ship Resistance and Propulsion 113 Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-consciousness, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith 149 Shull, George H 23, 27, 32 Report by 29 Research Assistant 146 Skulls of Trionychitae in the Bridget Deposits of Wyoming, by O. P. Hay 149 Simons, Etoile B 144 Sioussat, St. George L 63 Slade, William A 66 Smallwood, Mabel E 28 Smith, J. R 60 Smith, Mary Roberts, Research Assistant 56, 146 Smith, Theodate L. : Psychology of Day Dreams 152 Types of Adolescent Affection 152 Snake Venom, Action upon Cold-blooded Animals 147 Snake Venoms, Studies on 133 Soapstone, Study of 58 Social Legislation, Study of 62 Sodium Vapor, Fluorescence of 129 Solar Investigations 89 Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson, California. 94 Acquirement of a Site for. . 158 Solar Research at Mount Wilson, California 155-174 Southern Observatory Project 147, 175-177 Spalding, V. M 99, 102 Biological Relations of Certain Desert Shrubs 152 Spaulding, Edward G 144 Association in Hermit Crabs 152 Special Physics of Segmentation 152 Spectroscopic Observations at Mount Wilson, California 174 Spencer, Arthur C : . . . . 275 Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas, by William A. Canhon 148 Spoff ord, A. R 98 Standfuss, M 29 State and Federal Finance, including Taxation, Study of 63 Statistical Methods, by C. B. Davenport 149 INDBX. 307 Page Stellar Photometry 88 Stellar Statistics, Contributions to 147 Stevens, Nettie M., Research Assistant 146 Stieglitz, Julius, I,etter of 254 Stock, H. H 57 Stratton, S. W 128 Streeter, George L 144 Strong, R. M 144 Subterranean Temperatures, Plans for Obtaining 120, 259-267 Supra-renal Gland, Study of Chemical Composition of Secretion of 103 Syria and Palestine, Excavations in 84 Talc, Study of 58 Taxation in Michigan, Study of. 63 Mississippi 63 Tennessee 63 Vermont 63 Temperature at Mount Wilson, California 167 Tennessee, Taxation in 63 Terrestrial Magnetism, Report on, by L. A. Bauer 68-74 Thompson , Elihu 127 Thompson, J. D 97 Thompson, J. O 80 Thompson , Laura 66 Thorium, Carolinium, Berzelium, by Charles Baskerville 148 Tittmann, O. H 74 Letter of 273 Topographic Survey 288 Tortugas, Florida, Marine Biological Laboratory at 50-54 Tower, W. L., Investigation of the Potato Beetles of Mexico 28, 141 Traditions of the Arikara 147 Trans-Caspian Archeological Expedition 75-79 Transportation, Economic Investigations concerning 59 Treadwell, Aaron L 144 Treadwell, Timothy 32 Trustees of Carnegie Institution of Washington 3 By-laws concerning 13 Tschermak, Erich 29 Turner, H. H., Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 182-183 Uber Triphenylmethyl, by M. Gomberg 149 Van Orstrand, C. E 80 Van Tyne, C. H 65 Variable Stars, Observations concerning 92 Vermont, Taxation in 63 Vice-Chairman of Board of Trustees 14 Walcott, Charles D.: Elected Member of Executive Committee 18 Secretary of Executive Commi ttee 21 308 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON. Page Ward, William Hayes, Study of Oriental Art Recorded on Seals from Western Asia 84, 85 Warner, Langdon 75 Washington, Henry S. : Analysis of Leucite-tephrite from Vesuvius 152 Chemical Investigations of Igneous Rocks . 113 Waterlilies ■ • ^47 Weitere Mittheilungen uber das Epinephrin, by J. J. Abel 147 Wells, Roger Clark 112 Whitehead, J. B. , Research Assistant 146 Magnetic Effect of Electric Displacements 152 Whitman, Charles 0 29, 145 Whitney, Mary W., Report concerning Astronomical Photographs 95 Wichita, Mythology of 83 Wieland, G. R.: Cordaitales 152 Cycads 152 Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in the Evolution of Plants and Animals 152 Researches on Living and Fossil Cycads 123 Wilczynski, E. J., Research Assistant 146 Investigation of Ruled Surfaces, etc. 122 Willcox, W. F 55 Williams, Ira A 58 Willis, Bailey, on Geological Research in Eastern Asia 118, 275-291 Wilson, Edmund B 28, 145 Experimental Studies on Germinal Localization 152 Wilson, H. v.: Investigation concerning Deep-sea Sponges 142-144 Reports on Exploration of the West Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos Islands 152 Wind Movement at Mount Wilson, California 168 Wingate, A. W. S 276 Wonder Horses and Mendelism, by C. B. Davenport.. t . . 149 Wood, Frederick K 63 Wood, R. W. : Achromatization of Interference Bands formed with Monochrom. Light, and Consequent Increase in Allowable Path Difference 152 Anomalous Depression, Absorption, and Surface Color of Nitrosodi- methyl Aniline. 152 Apparatus for Showing the Pressure of Sound Waves 152 Electrical Resonance of Metal Particles for Light Waves 152 Invisibility of Transparent Objects 152 Photographic Reversals in Spectrum Photographs 152 Quantitative Determination of the Anomalous Depression of Sodium Vapor 152 Recent Improvements in the Diffraction Process of Color Photog- raphy 152 Research on Theory of Light , 1 28 INDEX. 309 Wood, R. W. : Page Screens Transparent Only for Ultra-violet Light 152 Some new Cases of Interference and Diffraction 152 Surface Color 152 Wood, R, W., and Moore, J. H., Fluorescence and Absorption Spectra of Sodium Vapor 152 Woods Hole Laboratory 144 Woods Hole Station 22 Woodward, Robert S. , Elected President of Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington 19 Wright, Carroll D 55 Wyoming, Mining Notes on 57 Yatsu, N., Experimental Studies of Nemertine Egg 144 Yerkes, R. M i44 Zerban, Fritz, Research Assistant 146 Zoology, Projects concerning 134-144 iiin liiii 5185 oo: ^f^ ■--^v ^* JSr V'> ^^ .-^•v :^i^ H #.'«'